Calamansi Production Guide

Prized for its fruit and ornamental value, the calamansi (Citrofortunella microcarpa) is one of the most important citrus species in the Philippines. Its potential lies in its varied uses. Once familiarity of the fruit is established in other countries, the scope for increasing export and production is large.

Description

The calamansi tree is evergreen and small, attaining a height of 2-7.5 m at maturity. Its broadly egg-shaped leaves are dark green above and pale green below. The small, white fragment flowers are grouped in clusters. The calamansi fruit is round, with greenish yellow to orange skin which can be easily peeled. There are six to ten segments in a fruit with an orange colored, very acidic juice and each fruit has 4-11 seeds.

Variety

The calamansi seed produces plants which originate mainly from the mother tissues giving rise to seedlings which have the same characteristics as the mother tree. For this reason, the calamansi trees in the country are believed to belong to only one variety.

Uses

Due to its varied uses, the calamansi is grown on a large-scale in the country. The fruit is commercially processed into bottled concentrate, as a ready-to-drink juice in tetra packs, and as a marmalade. The juice is also very popular as a flavor enhancer for native dishes. As a cleanser and hygienic substance, it can be a stain remover, body deodorant, skin bleach, and hair shampoo.

Calamansi can be used for medicinal purposes. Rubbing the juice on insect bites eliminates itching and irritation. It is taken orally as cough remedy, as a laxative to loosen the bowels, and is combined with pepper to expel phlegm. The roots are used for treatment at childbirth and leaves to cure gas pains. Calamansi is also popular as a potted ornamental plant.

Soil and Climatic Requirements

The calamansi thrives in warm to cool climates with an evenly distributed rainfall of 1,500-2,000 mm/year. It is generally grown in the lowlands. Calamansi can grow over a wide range of soil types from clay loam to limestone to sand. However, it grows best in a slightly acidic, well-drained sandy or clay loam soil rich in organic matter.

Cultural Management

Propagation. The calamansi may be propagated by seed. However, for large scale multiplication of superior trees, propagation by shield budding using calamandrin as rootstock is practiced. Other methods of propagating calamansi are by stem cuttings,marcotting, anf grafting.

Planting/Transplanting. Sow seeds in a seedbed, 1-2 cm apart at a depth of 1cm. transplant to individual containers after four to five months when seedlings are 10-15 cm tall. Field planting should be done during the rainy season. Set the plants at a spacing of 4-6 m apart.

Irrigation. Irrigate during the first dry season after which the trees may depend entirely on rain for their water requirement. If early of-season flowering is desired, heavily water the trees one to two months before normal flowering time. Commercial orchards may employ a drip irrigation system.

Fertilization. During the first year, apply urea at 50-100 g/tree and 200-300 g/ tree during the second year. In the third year when the tree starts bearing fruit commercially, apply 350-400 g complete fertilizer/tree. Correspondingly increase the amount as the tree gets older. Evenly distribute the fertilizer in two applications, one at the onset of the rainy season and another towards the end of the rainy season.

Pruning. Remove diseased, dead interlacing branches.

Pest and diseases. The common pest of calamansi is the fruit fly. The most serious disease is leaf mottling which is transmitted by the insect carrier, Diaphorina citri better known as citrus psylla or jumping plant lice. As a preventive measure, use certified disease-free planting materials and spray trees regularly with an insecticide. Totally remove and burn infected trees.

Harvesting and Post harvest Handling

A three-year-old tree produces. 75 kg fruit; at six years, 10 kg; and at ten years, 50 kg. on the average, calamansi produces 20 t of fruit/ha per year.

Though fruits are available throughout the year, the peak season is from August – October.

Harvest fruits by hand or by clipping with shears.

Pack calamansi fruit in kaings or bamboo baskets lined with banana leaf sheaths or newspaper.

The fruit will keep in good condition for two to three weeks at 8?-10?C and 90% relative humidity.

Reference: Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD)

Health Benefits of Guava

The health benefits of guava include the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, cough, cold, skincare, high blood pressure, weight loss and scurvy.

Many of you may have tasted this mouth-watering treat, or have at least seen or heard about it. Guava is very common in Asian countries, but is increasingly available in the western world, particularly as more of its health benefits are revealed. It is a somewhat round or pear-shaped seasonal fruit, and is light green, yellow, or maroon in color on the outside when it is ripe. Guava also has white or maroon flesh and lots of small hard seeds enveloped in very soft, sweet pulp. It is eaten raw (ripe or semi-ripe) or in the form of jams and jellies.

This popular fruit is a powerhouse of nutrients. If the traditional adage says that “An apple a day keeps the doctor away” in Europe and Americas, the phrase is probably changed to “A few guavas in the season keeps the doctor away for the whole year” in the Indian Subcontinent and places where guavas typically grow. Its scientific name is Psidium Guajava.

What makes guava special is that protecting the fruit does not require excessive use of chemical pesticides as in the case of grapes, apple, and other so-called “exotic” fruits. It is one of the least chemically treated and sprayed fruits.

Health Benefits of Guava

Some of the surprising and brilliant health benefits are listed below.

Weight loss: Guava is very helpful for those who want to lose weight without compromising their intake of proteins, vitamins and fiber. Guava is very high in roughage and rich in vitamins, proteins and minerals, but it has no cholesterol and a low number of digestible carbohydrates. It is a is very filling snack and satisfies the appetite very easily. Guava, especially raw guava, also has far less sugar as compared to apples, oranges, grapes, and other fruit. Adding a medium-sized guava to your lunch and you will not feel hungry again until the evening. Ironically, it can also help with weight gain in lean, thin people. This is probably due to its wealth of nutrients, which keep the metabolism regulates and helps to promote the proper absorption of nutrients.

Diabetes: In a related benefit to blood pressure mentioned above, an intake of guava can also help those patients who suffer from diabetes. The high level of dietary fiber in guava helps to regulate the absorption of sugar by the body, which decreases the chances of major spikes and drops in insulin and glucose in the body. Studies have shown that consuming guava can help prevent the appearance of type-2 diabetes.

Eyesight: Guavas are extremely good sources of vitamin-A, which is well known as a booster for vision health. It can help slow down the appearance of cataracts, macular degeneration, and general health of the eyes. It can not only prevent degradation of eyesight, but even an improvement in eyesight once it has begun to degrade.

Cancer Prevention: One of the most celebrated and important benefits of adding guava to your diet is its ability to inhibit the growth and metastasis of cancerous cells. There have been numerous studies done in recent years on guava’s effects primarily on prostate cancer,breast cancer, and oral cancers. Guava leaf oil is extremely successful as an anti-proliferative substance, and has actually been shown to be more effective than some leading modern medicines in reducing cancerous growth. Guavas are also rich in lycopene, a powerful antioxidant that has been shown to be wildly successful in reducing prostate cancer risk. That same antioxidant has also shown to inhibit the growth of breast cancer cells, although further human trials need to be done.

Finally, the naturally high levels of vitamin-C in guavas, which are four times higher than the levels found in oranges (the traditional vitamin-C powerhouse), provides the immune system a huge boost in antioxidants. Antioxidants are the major lines of defense against the proliferation of free radicals in the body, which are one of the main causes of serious conditions like cancer and heart disease. Therefore, adding guava to your diet has numerous ways in which it helps you stay health and cancer-free.

Scurvy: Guava can outdo many other fruits, including orange and other citrus fruits, in terms of itsconcentration of vitamin-C. A  deficiency of vitamin-C can cause scurvy, and proper intake of vitamin-C is the only known remedy for that dangerous disease. In fact, guavas contain 5X more vitamin-C than oranges, which are often heralded as the absolute best source of that beneficial vitamin.

Diarrhea & dysentery: Guava is very rich in astringents (compounds that make your gums feel tighter and fresher).  After you chew guava leaves, eat a raw guava, or use some guava-based toothpaste), your mouth feels healthier, and the astringent qualities also add substance to loose bowels and reduce symptoms of diarrhea. These astringents are alkaline in nature and have disinfectant and anti-bacterial properties, thus helping to cure dysentery by inhibiting microbial growth and removing extra mucus from the intestines. Furthermore, other nutrients in guava such as vitamin-C, Carotenoids and potassium, strengthen and tone the digestive system while simultaneously disinfecting it. Guava is also beneficial in treating gastroenteritis for the same reasons stated above.

Thyroid Health: Guavas are a good source for copper, which is an important part of regulating thyroid metabolism by helping to control hormone production and absorption. The thyroid gland is one of the most important glands in the body for regulating hormones and organ system function, so guava can help balance your health in many ways.

Constipation: Guava is one of the richest sources of dietary fiber in terms of fruit. Its seeds, if ingested whole or chewed, serve as excellent laxatives. These two properties of guava help the formation of healthy bowel movements, and aid the body in retaining water and thoroughly cleaning your intestines and excretory system. It is said that constipation alone can lead to 72 different types of ailments, so any help with constipation is beneficial. Your total health is undeniably affected by proper digestion, and more importantly, proper excretion. Frequent consumption of guava can ensure both.

Brain Health: Another of the tremendous positive benefits of guavas is the presence of B3 and B6 vitamins. B3 (also known as niacin) can increase blood flow and stimulates cognitive function. B6 is a great nutrient for brain and nerve function. Therefore, eating guava can help you increase brain function and sharpen you focus.

Cough & cold: Juice of raw and immature guavas or a decoction of guava-leaves is very helpful in relieving coughs and colds by  reducing mucus, disinfecting the respiratory tract, throat and lungs, and inhibiting microbial activity with its astringent properties. Guava has one of the highest quantities of vitamin-C and iron among fruits, and both are proven to be preventive against colds and viral infections. In some areas of India, roasted ripe guava is used as a remedy against extreme cases of cough, cold, and congestion. Ripe guava should be avoided by people who are suffering from cough and cold, as it can exacerbate the problem, and one should also avoid drinking water immediately after eating guava as it can lead to a sore throat.

Skin care: Guavas can improve the texture of your skin and help you to avoid skin problems more than even the highest ranked beauty creams or skin toner gels. This is chiefly due to the abundance of astringents in the fruit (more astringent is present in immature guavas) and in its leaves. Your skin can benefit from either eating the fruits (this helps tighten your muscles apart from your skin) or by rinsing your skin with a decoction of its immature fruit and leaves. It will tone up and tighten the area of loosened skin where you apply it. In addition to the astringents, guava is very rich in vitamin-A, B, C and potassium which are  good antioxidants and detoxifiers, which keep your skin glowing and free from signs of premature aging, wrinkles and other dermal disorders.

High blood pressure: Guava helps reduce cholesterol in the blood and prevents it from thickening, thereby maintaining the fluidity of blood and reducing blood pressure. Studies have shown that food lacking fiber (such as refined flour) add to blood pressure, due to its quick conversion to sugar. Guava, being very rich in fiber and hypoglycemic in nature, helps reduce blood pressure.

Other benefits:  There are so many health benefits of guava, it is hard to know where to begin. It is important to know that guava helps control diabetes and protects the prostate.  The juice of guava leaves has been known to cure toothaches, swollen gums & oral ulcers, and the juice speeds up the healing process of wounds when applied externally. Finally, it reduces the frequency of convulsions, epilepsy, and bacterial infections.

As with many alternative foods and supplements, there is little risk in eating them in natural form, but you must do your due diligence when taking it in medical forms. Be cautious when adding any new medicinal form of guava into your diet, and it is better to stick to eating guava in its natural form as a raw fruit.

Reference source: https://www.organicfacts.net

Bust Mint (Suob kabayo) Hyptis Suaveolens

Etymology   

Hyptis Suaveolens (Suob Kabayo)

Hyptis derives from the Greek word hyptos alluding to the turned back lower lip position of the flower) and the Latin word suaveolens for sweet-smelling.

Botany

Suob kabayo is a coarse, erect, branched, more or less hairy, aromatic annual, 0.5 to 2 meters tall. Stems

are square. Leaves are ovate, opposite, 4 to 9 centimeters long, pointed at the tip, pointed to somewhat heart-shaped at the base, and toothed at the margins.

Flowers are long-stalked, occurring at the axils of leaves. Calyx in flower is hairy, about 4 millimeters long, but soon enlarges in fruit to about 1 centimeter long, striate with erect, stiff teeth. Corolla blue, strongly zygomorphic, bilabiate; stamens are 4, declinate, and about 8 millimeters long, with a limb 5 millimeters in diameter. Fruits have flat and mucilaginous seeds.

Distribution

- Very abundant in open, waste places at low and medium altitudes throughout the Philippines.

- Native of tropical America.

- Now pantropic.

Constituents

• Study yielded a greenish, volatile oil, with a powerful menthol odor.

• Study yielded essential oils in the fruiting stage. The principle constituents were spathulenol, 1,8-cineole, and (E)-caryophyllene.

• Study of constituents of essential oil from leaves revealed eucaliptol (47.64%) to be most abundant, followed by gama-ellemene, beta-pynene, (+)3-carene, trans-beta-cariophyllene and germacrene.

• Phytochemical screening yielded sterols, flavonoids, and tannins.

• Leaves yield alkaloids, terpenes, and volatile oils.

• GC-MS study of leaf essential oil yielded 26 compounds comprising 100% of the oil. The most abundant compound was the terpene alcohol, eucaliptol (47.64%), followed by terpene hydrocarbons gamma-ellemene (8.15%), beta-pyrene (6.55%), (+)-3-carene (5.16%), trans-beta-caryophyllene (4.69%), and germacrene (4.86%). (see study below)

* Phytochemical screening of solvent extracts yielded alkaloids, flavonols, flavones, flavonones, terpenoids, tannins, aldehydes, and ketones, with an absence of steroids, saponins and anthraquinones. (see study below)

* GC-MS analysis of seed oil yielded high amounts (86.96%) of unsaturated fatty acids: linoleic acid (76.13%), oleic acid (10.83%) compared to saturated fatty acids with palmitic acid (6.55%), stearic acid (4.56%) and heptacosanoic acid (1.94%) as main constituents. (see study below)

* Phytochemical screening of ethanol extract of dried leaves revealed the presence of tannins, steroids, terpenoids, saponins, phlobtannins and cardiac glycosides and an absence of flavonoids. (see study below)

* Proximate analysis yielded (%): mineral content tannins 0.45, phenols 0.04, flavonoids 7.54, crude alkaloid 8.21, crude fiber 5.24, crude protein 8.09, carbohydrate 57.58, ash 3.68, crude lipid 3.45, potassium 1.40, nitrogen 1.96, calcium 0.94, magnesium 0.43, sodium 0.34, phosphorus 0.65.

* Study of essential oil from aerial parts yielded more than 45 components, of which eugenol (68.2%) and germacrene D (11.0%) were the major constituents.

* Study of the essential oil of leaves yielded predominant compounds viz. sabinene (7.3-31.3%), eucalyptol (14.0-24.6%), ß-caryophyllene (6.9-12.7%), 1,8-cineole (11.5%), ß-phellandrene (10.2%), terpinolene (8.7-9.6%), fenchone (4.1-8.1%), p-mentha-2 (7),8-diene (7.9%), bicyclogermacrene (4.7-7.5%), ß-pinene (4.9-7.4%), (Z)-ß-ocimene (6.9%), and terpinen-4-ol (5.4-5.9%).

- GC-MS study of fresh leaves for essential oil yielded 24 compounds representing 90.3% of identified oil. Main components were ß-caryophyllene (26.0%), ß-elemene (10.4%), trans-a-bergamotene (7.7%), spathuulenol (7.0%), and bicyclogermacrene (6.5%). (see study below)

• Study yielded eight compounds from the aerial parts, namely: quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1), apigenin (2), methyl wogonin (3), quercetin (4), kaempferol (5), genkwanin (6), rosmarinic acid (7) and methylrosmarinate (8), respectively. Roots yielded two compounds, identified as podophyllotoxin (9) and picropodophyllotoxin (10).

Properties

• Bitter, minty and aromatic.

• Leaves considered stimulant, carminative, sudorific, galactagogue.

• Considered analgesic, decongestant, emmenagogue, antipyretic, stimulates blood circulation.

* Studies have shown antimicrobial, acaricidal, larvicidal, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, wound healing, antidiabetic, mosquito repellent, antidiarrheal, gastroprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective properties.

Parts utilized

- Whole plant.

- Collect from April to June.

- Wash, cut in pieces and compress. Dry under the sun.

Folkloric

· In the Philippines, leaves and tops are used in the preparation of antirheumatic and antisuporific baths , and internally, as antispasmodic.

· Decoction of roots valued as appetizer.

· Decoction of plant used for flatulence.

· Leaves are crushed and applied to boils.

· Leaves juice applied to athlete's foot and ringworm lesions.

· Crushed leaves also applied to forehead or temples for headaches.

· Pounded fresh material applied as poultice may be used for treatment of snake bites.

· Decoction of fresh material may be used as external wash for dermatitis, eczema.

· Infusion of dried leaves is taken for fever or applied to the forehead for headaches and to boils. The juice of leaves, mixed with lime juice, is drunk for stomach aches.

· Root decoction used as emmenagogue. Also used as stimulant for rheumatism.

· A small amount of root, chewed with betel-nut, used as stomachic.

· In Malasya, used as stimulant and sudorific, and against catarrh.

· Used as lactagogue.

· Used for poulticing skin complaints.

· Juice of leaves used for athlete's foot, applied daily to interdigital areas.

· In Nigeria, leaf decoction used in the treatment of diabetes and in fever associated with colds.

· In India, leaf paste is applied on sores and fungal skin infections. Also, used for cancers, stomach pains, indigestion, colds, and gallbladder infections.

Others

• Repellent: The intense odor emitted by leaves is used by the Filipinos to drive out bedbugs, putting branches under beds, chairs, etc. (•) In Kenya, also used as bedbug repellent. Burned overnight in rooms to repel mosquitoes.

• Hyptis oil: A high concentration of omega-6 lipids suggests hyptis oil to be an ideal product for dry, flaky skin.

Studies

• Antimicrobial / Essential Oil: Study of the volatile oil distilled from the overground parts of H suaveolens showed activity against bacteria and fungi.

• Antimicrobial / Leaves: Study showed a leaf extract with the highest antifungal and antibacterial activity against Aspergillus niger and Micrococcus luteus. Study evaluated aqueous and ethanol extracts of leaves of H. suaveolens for antibacterial (K. pneumonia, S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa) and antifungal (C. albicans, C. capsici, F. oxysporum) activities. All test microbes were susceptible to the e with inhibition zones ranging from 12-19mm. The aqueous extract showed no inhibitory activity.

• Insecticidal Effect :A comparative study showed that H suaveolens exerted better larvicidal and ovicidal effect than A indica and O gratissimum. Study of the insecticidal activities of the petroleum ether extract of H suaveolens showed high toxicity on the second instar larvae of the Diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella.

• Acaricidal Effect : A hydro-distillate of HS leaves showed the adult and nymphal stages of ticks of Hyalomma sp , Rhipicephalus sp, and Haemophysalis sp to be highly susceptible, favoring its use as an acaricide.

• Larvicidal Effect / Aedes aegypti: Study showed the essential oil of Hyptis suaveolens demonstrated high larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti compared to that Lantana camara . A synergistic effect with 100% mortality was obtained with the mixture of leaf essential oils of H suaveolens and L camara. It presents a promising source for natural larvicidal compounds.

• Antinociceptive Effect / Toxicity Study / Leaves: Study of HS aqueous leaf extracts showed dose-dependent nociceptive effects significantly antagonized by naloxone. No toxicity was found on doses of up to 5 g/kg p.o.

• Anti-Inflammatory Effect / Essential Oil : In a comparative study with the anti-inflammatory activity of diclofenac sodium, Hyptis suaveolens leaf essential oil showed to have better anti-inflammatory activity than the marketed formulation.

• Essential Oils: Study on the composition of essential of H suaveolens showed 1,8-cineole and (E)-caryophyllene to be the principal constituents. Latitude seems to be the most important environmental factor.

• Antioxidant / Antifungal / Essential Oils: Study on the essential oil of H suaveolens showed time and concentration dependent antioxidant effect. Results showed antifungal potential more pronounced than antibacterial properties.

• Mosquito Repellent / Essential Oils: Study showed H. suaveolens to have a high mosquito repellency rate. Statistical analysis showed no significant difference between 10% H. suaveolens essential oil and DEET indicating both products are similarly effective. Study shows a formulation containing 10% essential oil of H. suaveolens has a potential for the integrated management of disease-vector mosquitoes.

• Antifungal / Essential Oils: Study of essential oil revealed an anti-Aspergillus property and a possible rational use as alternative source of new antifungal compounds for aspergillosis treatment. (see constituents above)

• Wound Healing: Five extracts were subjected to antibacterial screening for wound healing activity using excision, incision, and dead space wound healing models. A petroleum ether extract showed significant activity on all three models.

• Acute Toxicity Study / Antidiabetic / Leaves: Study evaluated a methanolic extract of leaves for acute toxicity and hypoglycemic effect in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Acute toxicity study showed an LD50 of 2154.1 mg/kbw. The methanol extract showed significant reduction in blood glucose concentration.

• Cytotoxicity / Anticancer: Study of the anticancer potentials showed both Hyptis suaveolens and Leonotis nepetaefolia exhibiting potent cytotoxicity against Ehrlich Ascites carcinoma by activating the apoptotic pathway.

• Bioefficacy Against Fish Pathogens: Study investigated the bioefficacy of various leaves extracts of H. suaveolens against fish pathogens isolated from Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). An ethanolic extract exhibited broad spectrum of inhibition for B. subtilis, P aeruginosa, K pneumonia and E. coli.

• Antidiarrheal / Leaves: Study investigated an ethanol leaves extract for antidiarrheal activity against an experimental model of castor oil-induced diarrhea in mice. Results showed significant and dose-dependent inhibitory activity against castor oil induced diarrhea.

• Neuroprotective Against Oxidative Stress-Induced Neurotoxicity / Antioxidant: Study investigated the neuroprotective effects of a methanol extract of H. suaveolens using various in vitro systems. The extract showed potent antioxidant activity. Pretreatment with the extract promoted upregulation of tyrosine hydroxylase (s.42-fold, p<0.05) and brain-derived neurotropic factor genes against haO2-induced cytotoxicity in N2A cells.

• Natural Mosquito Repellent / Essential Oil: Study investigated the mosquito repellent activity of Hyptis suaveolens through four parts: plant placement, smoldering, spraying, and stick formation. H. suaveolens was found to a very useful in overcoming the problems associated with synthetic repellents i.e., allergy, unpleasant smell and cost, and most importantly, it is easily available in rural and hilly areas.

• Gastroprotective / Suavelol: Study investigated the gastroprotective activity of H. suaveolens in an ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model in rats. Results showed a hexane extract to have protective effect, and the compound suavelol was one of the active gastroprotective agents. The gastroprotective mechanism involved NO, prostaglandins and sulfhydryl groups.

• Hepatoprotective / Acetaminophen Induced Hepatotoxicity: Study investigated the possible hepatoprotective activity of pretreatment with aqueous extract of leaves on acetaminophen induced hepatotoxicity in rabbits. Marker enzymes were significant reduced almost toward normal. Hepatoprotective potential was suggested by numerous reported bioactivity.

• Hepatoprotective / Cytoprotective: Study showed a methanol extract of H. suaveolens with protective effect against CCl4-induced oxidative damage in albino Wistar rats and H2O2-induced oxidative damage in HepG2 cells.

• Antiurolithiasis / Calcium Oxalate: Study investigated the inhibition of in-vitro calcium-oxalate crystal formation by various extracts of Hyptis. Results showed the inhibitory potency of alcohol extracts of H. suaveolens was comparable to that of cytone (a proprietary drug for dissolving kidney stones).

• Hematologic and Sperm Effect: Study evaluated H. suaveolens, Cleome viscosa and Urena lobata for toxic effects on hematological parameters and sperm count of albino rats. Hyptis suaveolens showed a significant decrease (<0.05) in headless tail which may be of significant effect to their fertility. H. suaveolens hematologic effects were slight and insignificant.

• Gastroprotective / Gastric Ulcers: Study evaluated an ethanolic extract and hexanic fraction of H. suaveolens for gastroprotective effect in several models of gastric ulcer. Results showed the extract and fraction markedly reduced the gastric lesions induced by all ulcerogenic agents (HCl/ethanol, ethanol, NSAIDs, and hypothermic restraint-stress) with a mechanism of action that involves sulfhydryl groups. Study evaluated the curative potential of aqueous extract of H. suaveolens against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in Wistar rats. Results showed a curative potential as evidenced by reduction in all ulcer index measures, more effective at extract dose of 250 mg/kg compared to 500 mg/kg.

• Antimalarial: Study of ethanolic leaf extract in albino mice and Wistar rats showed good antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium berghei (08.2±2.70) corresponding to 51.05% suppression and (01.17 ±0.75) corresponding to 94.58% curative. LD50 of the extract was found to be 1264.91 ±0.51 mg/kg in mice and rats.

• Antifungal: Antifungal screening of ethanol extract and partitionates of pulverized plant materials showed growth inhibition in some instances exceeding that of griseofulvin antibiotics against Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus and Fusarium species. (see constituents above) 

• Antimicrobial / Seed Oil: Study of seed oil was detrimental to growth of fungi and bacterial tested. Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Candida tropicalis were susceptible at lower concentration. E. coli, Shigella flexnerii, and Vibrio vulnificus were sensitive only at high concentrations. (see constituents above)

• Bioefficacy Against Fish Pathogens / Leaves: Study evaluated the bioefficacy of leaves extracts of H. suaveolens against fish pathogens isolated from diseased Tilapia (Oreochromis nioticus). Ethanolic extracts demonstrated broad spectrum of activities that inhibited the growth of B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumonia, and E. coli. Further studies seek to identify bioactive compounds and mechanisms of action on organisms associated with human diseases.

• Antimicrobial / Synergism Study / Mosquito Repellent Activity: Study evaluated leaf extracts of HS for antimicrobial against P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and cell phone bacteria. When tested for synergistic activity with Kaempferia galanga and L. amaranthus, results showed greater antimicrobial activity when applied alone. It inhibited the growth of cell phone bacteria and confirmed mosquito repellent activity against Ae. aegypti.

• Suaveolic Acid / Potent Phytotoxic Substance: Study isolated and identified suavelic acid, a phytotoxic substance characterized as 14α-hydroxy-13β-abiet-8-en-18-oic acid. It inhibited the shoot growth of garden cress, lettuce (Lactuca sativa), Italian ryegrass, and barnyard grass at concentration greater than 30 µM. Root growth of all but lettuce was also inhibited at concentrations greater than 30 µM.

• Mosquito Larvicidal / Culex quinquefasciatus: Study evaluated various aerial extracts of H. suaveolens against filarial vector Cx. quinquefasciatus. Among the extracts tested, acetone exhibited the highest larvicidal activity with LC50 value of 485.61 after 24 hours. At 48 hours, petroleum ether showed highest larvicidal activity with LC50 of 298.76 mg/L.

• Enolic-type Bioconstituents / Antifeedant: Study evaluated various extracts and solvents for bioactivity. The ethyl acetate crude extract showed promising antifeedat oviposition deterrent, ovicidal and insecticidal activity against Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura. Fraction II and IV showed statistically significant ovicidal activity and yielded two bioactive molecules with 99% purity: (2E)-1- (2-hydroxy phenyl) pent-2-en-1-one (I) and 1-[(3-hydroxy-5, 5-dimethyl cyclohex-3-en-1yl) oxy] hexan-3-one (II).

• Reversal of Dexamethasone Suppressed Wound Healing: Study evaluated the effect of ethanolic extract of HS on dexamethasone suppressed wound healing on incision and excision wound models in Wistar rats. Dexamethasone treated group showed significant (p<0.05) reduction in wound breaking strength and significant increase in epithelization. Extract treated group showed significant (p<0.05) in all wound healing parameters.

• Antihyperglycemic / Lipid Effects / Leaves: Study evaluated the antihyperglycemic activity of leaves of Hyptis suaveolens using streptozotocin model. Results showed significant antihyperglycemic effect which may be attributed to stimulation of glucose utilization and antioxidant enzymes. There was also a decrease in total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL and VLDL.

• Effect on Various Stages of Mosquito Development / Ovicidal Effect / Dried Leaves: Study evaluated an ethanol extract of dried leaves on developmental stages of mosquito development. Results showed great potential as alternative means of controlling mosquitoes. The extract was more effective on eggs than on other developmental stages (larvae, pupae and adult). At highest concentration, the extract showed a mortality rate for eggs of 99.2%. Results suggest great potential as alternative means of controlling mosquitoes by targeting the eggs. (see constituents above)

• Insecticidal / Stored Product Pests: Study evaluated the potency of various concentrations of methanolic extract of Hyptis suaveolens leaves as botanical in the control of stored product pests. Results showed high insecticidal capability in the control of insect pests through contact treatment and 100% mortality of Sitophilus oryzae, Sitophilus zeamais and Callosobruchus maculatus.

• Mild Corrosion Inhibition / Leaves: Study showed the efficiency of Hyptis suaveolens leaf extract for control of mild steel corrosion in 1 M H2SO4.

• Antifungal / Oil / Carboxymethyl Mungbean Gel Local Delivery: Conventional topical antifungal formulations have limited effectiveness. Study evaluated the effectiveness of an antifungal microemulsion formulation of H. suaveolens on an oil-based carboxymethyl mungbean (CMMS) gel. Results showed a promising effective alternative for topical delivery of antifungal agents.

• Antifungal / Essential Oil / Leaves: GC-MS analysis of fresh leaves for essential oil yielded 24 compounds representing 90.3& of the oil identified. The oil exhibited significant antifungal activity against Mucor sp. when compared to ketoconazole. (see constituents above)

• Antimicrobial / Antioxidant / Roots: Study of crude methanolic extract of roots of Hyptis suaveolens showed potent antioxidant activity by DPPH assay and anitmicrobial activity by disc diffusion method.

• Antioxidant / Cytotoxicity / MCF-7 Cancer Cell Line / Leaves: Study of Hyptis suaveolens ethyl acetate leaf extract yielded two bioactive compounds, menthol and linalool. On cytotoxic studies, the compounds showed potent effects on cancer cells (MCF-7) with concentration dependent decrease in cell viability. In vitro antioxidant assays were carried out by DPPH, superoxide, H2O2 radical scavenging assays, ferric reducing power activity and lipid peroxidation inhibition assays.

• Antiplasmodial / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated the in vitro antiplasmodial and anti-radical activities of leaves of H. suaveolens from two localities of Benin. Phytochemical screening prior to evaluation of biologic activities yielded several metabolites, mainly phenolic compounds (tannins and flavonoids) that may be responsible for antiplasmodial and antioxidant properties. Pharmacologic study on ethanolic and hydroethanolic extracts showed molecules capable of trapping DPPH and antiplasmodial properties at low doses.

• Antioxidant / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the phytochemical content, antioxidant activity, and flavonoid profiling of methanolic extracts of aerial parts of four herbs of the Lamiaceae family: C. basilicum, M. arvensis, C. aromaticus, and Hyptis suaveolens. On DPPH assay, H. suaveolens showed second highest activity at 35.76%. Preliminary phytochemical screening yielded tannins,, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, triterpenoids, cardiac glycosides, and alkaloids. Quantitative analysis for phenol yielded 24 mg/g. HPTLC flavonoid profiling yielded peak heights of 91.68 gallic acid, 448.937 ferulic acid, 119.887 quercetin, 13.780 chlorogenic acid, and 13.780 rutin.

• Toxic Effect against Fourth Instar Larvae of Anopheles gambiae / Leaf and Essential Oil: Study investigated the effectiveness of Chenopodium ambrosoides, Hyptis suaveolens, and Lippia adoensis leaf methanolic extracts and essential oils against fourth instar larvae of Anopheles gambiae in the laboratory. All the plant products tested exhibited dose-dependent toxic effect against AG larvae and suggested a potential and eco-friendly approach in vector control programs.

• Inhibition of Fe-Induced Lipid Peroxidation in the Brain / Polyphenolic Extracts / Leaves: Study evaluated the inhibitory effect of polyphenol extracts from H. suaveolens leaves on Fe++induced lipid peroxidation in rat's brain in vitro. The leaf extract yielded 3.88 mg/g total phenol (2.94 free, 0.94 bound). Free soluble polyphenols are more abundant in H. suaveolens leaves than bound polyphenols. The higher antioxidant properties of free soluble polyphenols from leaves may be responsible for the high protection against Fe-induced lipid peroxidation in the brain.

• Anti-Inflammatory / Diterpenes / Leaves: Study isolated two main compounds, suaveolol and methyl suaveolate, from the leaves of chichingaste (Hyptis suaveolens). The anti-inflammatory activity of the compounds were evaluated on inhibition of croton oil-induced dermatitis of mouse ear. Both compounds showed nearly the same dose-dependent topical anti-inflammatory activity, only two to three times lower than reference drug indomethacin. The antiphlogistic activity of the extracts support the use of Hyptis suaveolens extracts for dermatological applications.

• Antinociceptive / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated ethanolic extract and fractions of Hyptis suaveolens leaves for antinociceptive and central nervous system depressant effects. Analgesic properties were assessed using acetic acid-induced writhing and hot plate test. while locomotor activity was assessed in mice using hold board test. Results showed CNS depressant activity and analgesic effect on chemical and thermal pain stimulation. Activity may be from activation of opioid and/or peripheral receptors.

• Anthelmintic / Insecticidal / Leaves: Study evaluated the phytochemical, anthelmintic, and insecticidal properties of Hyptis suaveolens leaf extracts. Phytochemical screening yielded carbohydrates, alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, coumarin glycoside, saponins, flavonoids, phytosterols, fats and oils, phenols, tannins, and terpenoids. Extracts showed anthelmintic activity against Pheretima posthuma and insecticidal activity against red flour beetle T. castaneum.

Toxicity Concerns and Studies

• Hepatotoxicty: Animal study suggests that the use of extracts of H suaveolens in high doses may be accompanied by weight loss and toxic effects on the liver.

• Chronic Toxicity Study: A study of water extract of HS for 6-month chronic toxicity in Wistar rats at five treatment doses failed to produce any dose-related changes or significant toxic effects based on hematologic, biochemical, and histopathologic parameters.

Availability

Wild-crafted. 

Amaranth / Kulitis Production Guide

  

  

I. Scientific Name: Amaranthus tricolor L; A. viridis L.; A. dubius C. Martius; A. cruentus L.

II. Common Names/Local Names:

Amaranth, Chinese spinach, tampala, pigweed (English)
Kulitis, Uray (Tagalog)

Tiger leaf

Varieties:

• Tiger leaf – spineless, leaf soft tender and variegated  in color
• Red leaf – spineless, often used as an ornamental plants in certain areas
• Green Leaf – spineless
• Uray – spiny, It has a reddish color on the undersurface of the cotyledons and on the stem.

III. Botanical Description

The edible amaranth (A. tricolor L or A. viridis L) is an annual leafy vegetables belonging to the amaranthaceae or amaranth family.

Red leaf

Amaranthus – Erect annual, strongly branching, up to 2.5 m tall, with strongly branched tap root. Leaves alternate, long petiolate, simple and entire. Flowers in axillary clusters, upper clusters often leafless and in panicled spikes, unisexual, solitary in the axil of a bract, witrh 2 bracteoles, 3-5 tepals either free stamens as many as tepals (male flowers) or ovate or oblong ovary with 2-3 stigmas (female flowers). Fruits a dry capsule, dehiscent or indehiscent . Seeds shiny black or brown.

A. tricolor – Erect annual up to 1.5 m tall. Leaves elliptical to lanceolate or broad-ovate, dark green, light green or red. Clusters of flowers axillary, often globose, with a reduced terminal spike, but occasionally the terminal spike is well developed. Teplas 3. fruit dehiscent, with a circumscissile lid. Seeds black, relatively large; 1200-2900 seeds/g. cultivated.

Green Leaf

A. dubius – Annual sometimes biennial, up to 2 m tall, erect, strongly branching, Leaves ovate or rhomboid ovate, shortly cuneate at base, dark green. Lower clusters of flowers axillary, upper clusters leafless and in lax panicled spikes. Tepals 3-5. Fruits dehiscent, with a circumscissile lid. Seeds black, very small; 3000-4800 seeds/g. cultivated vegetables, sometimes escaped as weed.

A. cruentus – Tall annual, up to 2.5 m. Leaves lanceolate, accurate and often short-decurrent at base, grayish-green. Clusters of flowers in large axillary and terminal panicled spikes. Tepals 5. Fruit dehiscent, with a circumscissile lid. Seeds dark brown to black; 2,500 – 3,000 seeds/g. seeds of grain types are light yellow. Cultivated as vegetable or grain.

Tricolor

A spiny relative of kulitis called uray (A. spinosus L) is a common vegetable in some regions in the Philippines. Though, spiny, it makes excellent greens or potherbs when used in the same way as spinach.

IV. Adaptability

It is highly adapted under lowland condition. Grow well at day temperatures above 250C and night temperatures not lower than 150C. Amaranthus are quantitative short day plants. It consumes high amount of water and uses 6 mm/day. Amaranthus prefers fertile, well drained soils with a loose structure.

V. Uses / Importance

Amaranth is one of the most delicious leafy vegetables. It is a good crop for greens especially during the summer months when it is hard to grow and other kinds of vegetables. Amaranth is used in stews, “sinigang’ and other dishes wherever spinach (Spinacea oleracea L).

Many wild Amaranthus species are used as pot herbs. Used as ornamentals are A. tricolor forms with red, yellow and green coloured leaves or leaf sections and A. cruentus with large bright red inflorescences. Amaranthus weeds are used as for fodder (pigweed). Vegetable amaranths are recommended as a good food with medicinal properties for young children, lactating mothers and for patients with fever, hemorrhage, anemia or kidney complaints. The wild A. spinosus L. used as a depurative against venereal diseases and as dressing on boils.

VI. Nutrient Value

Amaranth is a rich source of calcium, iron and vitamin A as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Nutritional values of amaranth (Raw and Boiled/100 grams edible portion)

Nutrients	Raw	Boiled
Moisture (%)	84.4	83.9
Food energy (cal.)	47.0	27
Protein (g)	4.6	4.4
Fiber (g)	1.1	–
Total Carbohydrates (g)	7.4	4.4
Ash (g)	2.5	–
Calcium (mg)	341.0	314
Phosphorus (mg)	76.0	62
Iron (mg)	18.0	–
Sodium (mg)	51.0	–
Potassium (mg)	443.0	–
Vit. A (I.U.)	12, 860	12,345
Thiamine (mg)	0.01	0.01
Riboflavin (mg)	0.37	0.33
Niacin (mg)	1.80	1.70
Ascorbic acid (mg)	120.00	109.00

VII. Propagation

Amaranth is propagated by seeds. Depending on the cultivar, photoperiod and cultural practices, flowering may start 4-8 weeks after sowing then the seeds mature after 3-4 months (it will serves as the source of planting materials). However, A. dubius will continue its generative stage for a much longer period and when cut regularly, the plant may become shrubby and perennial but even at its mature stage the leaves are succulent which is suitable for consumption as vegetables.

VIII. Cultural Practices

Preparing the field

Amaranth requires thorough land preparation with twice plowing and harrowing and well-prepared bed for good growth.

Planting

Amaranth is planted either by direct seeding or transplanting. The choice of planting method depends on availability of seed and labor and may also vary with growing season. Direct seeding is appropriate when plenty of seeds is available, labor is limited and during the dry season when frequency of watering is less. Transplanting is preferred when there is limited amount of seed, plenty of labor and during the wet season when heavy rains and flooding are most likely to wash out the seeds.

However, the most common practices is sowing directly in rows with 0.5-1.0 cm deep and space rows 10-20 cm apart. Sow the seeds 5 cm apart within the row and cover with a layer of compost or rice hull, or broadcasting with a seed rate of 2-5 g/m2 (20-50 kg/ha). If transplanted, the seed requirement is only 2 kg/ha with plant densities of 400 plants/m2.

Fertilizing

Although amaranth is a low management crop and can grow in poor soils, yield increased with fertilizer application. A combination of both inorganic and organic fertilizers improves yield and maintains soil fertility. The amount of fertilizer to apply depends on soil fertility, soil type, fertilizer recovery rate, and soil organic matter. A soil test is highly recommended to determine the available N, P, and K. Suggested fertilizer recommendations are shown in Table 1. Fertilizer recommendations depend on local conditions, consult your fertility management specialist or conduct soil analysis to determine optimal rates.

Table 1. Recommended fertilizer rates (kg/ha) for amaranth production at AVRDC

Water Management

Amaranth is relatively drought tolerant, insufficient water will reduce yield. Water should be applied especially just after sowing or transplanting to have a good stand. As a rule, the plants should be irrigated if wilting occurs at noontime. During the rainy season, drainage is essential for plant survival and growth. Raised beds, clean furrows and large drainage canals facilitate quick drainage of excess water after heavy rain. Another way to gauge soil moisture content is to take a handful of soil from the bottom of a 15-cm deep hole. Squeeze the soil. If it holds together when you release your grip, there is sufficient soil moisture; if the soil crumbles, it’s time to irrigate. Irrigate thoroughly to maintain vigorous plant growth. Avoid over-irrigation, which may enhance disease development and nutrient leaching. Drip irrigation or micro-sprinkler irrigation is recommended in areas with limited water supply. If sprinkler irrigation must be used, avoid late evening irrigation to prevent diseases.

Weed Management

Weeds compete for light, water, and nutrients, thereby resulting in reduced yield. It may be controlled using a combination of methods. Choose the most appropriate method(s) for your location. Thorough land preparation is the first key to effective weed control. Amaranth is small-seeded and slow to germinate, therefore, weed control is essential in their early stage. A seedbed free of weed seeds allows amaranth seedlings to get a head start on the weeds and establish a canopy that can shade out emerging weed seedlings. Hand or hoe weeding can be performed as needed.

IX. Pests and Disease Management

Insect pests and diseases must be controlled to ensure good yield and marketable quality. Amaranth is susceptible to damage by foliar insects such as leafminers, leafrollers cutworms, aphids, flea beetles, and mites.

Traditional method of spreading wood ash to dispel insects have been replaced by spraying regularly up to twice a week with insecticides. Chemical pesticides should be used mainly as a corrective measure. Choose a pesticide that targets the specific insect that is causing the damage, and try to avoid pesticides that kill or inhibit the development of beneficial organisms. Choose pesticides that have short persistence, i.e., the effects last only a few days. Pesticides should be applied in the evening, and workers should not be allowed into the field until the recommended waiting period (usually 12 to 24 hours) has passed . An alternative but effective method of controlling insect pests is to cover the bed with a fine screen or nylon mesh netting (32-mesh or finer).

X. Harvesting

Amaranths are ready for harvest in 20–45 days after planting or sowing depending on variety and plant type. Plants may be harvested once or several times. Once-over harvesting is adapted for short maturing and quick growing varieties such as A. tricolor. Whole plants are pulled from soil with roots, washed and tied in bundles. With multiple harvests, young leaves and tender shoots are picked at 2–3 week intervals. Eventually, the plants begin to flower and develop fewer leaves. Frequent harvesting of leaves and shoots delays the onset of flowering and thus prolongs the harvest period. Amaranth and other leafy vegetables have large surface-to-volume ratio and lose water rapidly. To reduce water loss, harvest during the cooler time of day, such as early morning or late afternoon.

XI. Post-Harvest Handling

Since amaranth wilts rapidly, common practice in markets and shops is to sprinkle with water to keep its fresh appearance. If uprooted, the vegetables can be kept fresh for some days by putting it into basin with the roots in the water and sold in bunches or by weight.

XII. Prospects/Opportunities

Amaranth is recognized as an easy to grow and very productive crop. It is probably the highest yielding leaf vegetable of the tropics with its excellent nutritional value thus of high importance for human consumption and as a cheap green vegetables for city dwellers. Research should focus on optimization of cultural practices, effective pest control with fewer residues and plant nutrition.

XIII. References

A.C. Sas. 1984. Plants and Health. p 10.

Kasem Piluek. Plant Genetic Resources of South-East Asia 8 (PROSEA) for Vegetables. Pp 82-86

M.C. Palada and L.C. Chang, AVRDC International Cooperators’ Guide. May 2003, pub #03-552

PCARRD Technoguide 1985 pp 18-19.

Source: bpi.da.gov.ph