The Food and Agriculture

Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, and/or stimulate growth. Historically, people secured food through two methods: hunting and gathering, and agriculture.

Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture (e.g. permaculture or organic agriculture).

Sustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. It has been defined as "an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will last over the long term: satisfy human food and fiber needs; make the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls; sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.”

Seed Production for Hybrid Rice

Introduction To produce hybrid rice you need expert skills and strong knowledge of various practices to minimize costs and maximize returns. To produce hybrids, you also need: 1. A national seed production and distribution system, 2. A national quality assurance program, and 3. National expertise to oversee production of lines and seed.

What is "inbred rice seed"? Ordinary or inbred rice seed is produced when the egg inside the ovary is fertilized by pollen grains shed from: anthers borne in the same spikelet. anthers from other spikelets of the same plant. anthers from the spikelet of another plant of the same variety. When farmers plant an entire field to a single variety, they produce inbred seed.

How do you develop hybrid rice seed? Hybrid rice seed is produced when the egg is fertilized by pollen from the anthers of a rice plant from a different variety or line. Hybrid rice seed is the first filial (F1) generation of a cross of two rice varieties that are genetically different. In order to produce great quantities of hybrid seeds, two kinds of parental lines are needed: A male sterile line a rice variety without viable pollen. It is referred to as the female and accepts pollen from the male parent to produce the hybrid seed. A male (pollen) parent a rice variety with normal reproduction function. It is referred to as the male to provide pollen for the female parent in the same fields. A female plant X (left) and a male or pollen parent Y (right).

Some extra requirements to produce hybrid seeds Like any rice crop you need fertile soil. good water irrigation and drainage. sufficient sunlight for high seed yield. management of insects and soil-borne diseases. But, fields for hybrid seed production have some more important requirements: 1. Flowering time Both parents need to flower at the same time. So, planting dates of the two parents will sometimes be different. 2. Supplemental pollination To help the spread of pollen ropes or sticks are often used to improve the spread of pollen from the male to the female line. Using a rope to increase the spread of pollen in hybrid seed production fields. 3. Giberellic acid (GA) application GA increases the emergence of the female panicles from the sheath � improving the ability of the female to accept pollen form the male. 4. Isolation of seed production plots to protect genetic purity What we mean by protecting genetic purity is that the seed parent (or A line) is only pollinated by the male parent chosen as the B line or the R line. If pollen from different rice cultivars are close to the seed production plots, they can contaminate the seed parent and lower the quality of the hybrid seed. Seed production crops should be isolated from other inbred rice crops in 3 ways: A. Rice pollen can be carried up to 100 meters in air, so no other rice crop should be grown within 100 meters of hybrid seed production plots. B. Change planting time to have different flowering times between the seed parent and other rice cultivars by at least 3 weeks. C. Any natural, artificial, or crop barrier over 2.5 m high can prevent contamination. Sesbania, rostrata or a healthy, tall crop of maize, sorghum, or pearl millet make a good barrier. Source: IRRI Philippines

Rice Matter

Rice bug

The most common species of rice bug are Leptocorisa oratorius F. and Leptocorisa acuta Thunberg.

What it does

Rice bugs damage rice by sucking out the contents of developing grains from pre-flowering spikelets to soft dough stage, therefore causing unfilled or empty grains and discoloration. Immature and adult rice bugs both feed on rice grains.

Why and where it occurs

High rice bug populations are brought about by factors such as nearby woodlands, extensive weedy areas near rice fields, wild grasses near canals, and staggered rice planting. The insect also becomes active when the moonsoonal rains begin. Warm weather, overcast skies, and frequent drizzles favor its population buildup.

The population of the rice bug increases at the end of the rainy season.

Rice bugs are found in all rice environments. They are more common in rainfed and upland rice and prefer the flowering to milky stages of the rice crop.

Adults are active during the late afternoon and early morning. Under bright sunlight, they hide in grassy areas. They are less active during the dry season. In cooler areas, the adults undergo aestivation or diapause in grasses. They feed on wild hosts for one to two generations before migrating into the rice fields at the flowering stages. The nymphs are found on the rice plant where they blend with the foliage. There, they are often left unnoticed. When disturbed, the nymphs drop to the lower part of the plants and the adults fly within a short distance.

How to identify

Check the plant for feeding damage, such as

• small or shrivelled grains,
• deformed or spotty grains,
• empty grains, and
• erect panicles.

The symptoms can be confused with the damage caused by nutrient deficiency or flower thrips. To confirm rice bug infestation, check for presence of insect:

• oval, shiny, and reddish brown eggs along midrib of leaf
• slender and brown-green nymphs and adults feeding on endosperm of rice grains
• offensive smell

Why is it important

Both the adults and nymphs feed on grains at the milking stage. They can be serious pests of rice and sometimes reduce yield by as much as 30%.

How to manage

• Remove weeds from fields and surrounding areas to prevent the multiplication of rice bugs during fallow periods.
• Level fields with even applications of fertilizer and water encourage rice to grow and develop is at the same rate. Planting fields, within a village, at the same time (synchronous planting) also helps reduce rice bug problems.
• Capturing rice bugs, in the early morning or late afternoon, by net can be effective at low rice bug densities, though labor intensive.
• Encourage biological control agents: Some wasps, grasshoppers and spiders attack rice bugs or rice bug eggs. Indiscriminate insecticide use disrupts biological control, resulting in pest resurgence.

For chemical control

Before using a pesticide contact a crop protection specialist for suggestions, guidance, and warnings specific to your situation.

• Begin scouting the field at pre-flowering and continue daily until the hard dough stage. Count rice bugs in the early morning or late afternoon from 20 hills while walking diagonally across a transplanted field. Adults often fly out of the way before you reach the rice plant, so counts may only reveal immature forms. Direct control may be required if there are more than 10 rice bugs/20 hills.

• The choice of insecticide depends on many factors such as the application equipment available, cost of the insecticide, experience of the applicator, or presence of fish. The benefits of using an insecticide must be weighed against the risks to health and the environment. 

Source: IRRI Philippines

Guide for Organic Farming

Deadly.

Pesticides are dangerous to human health: 22,000 people die in developing countries each year from pesticide poisoning.

High dosages of fertilizers and liberal use of synthetic pesticides can pollute water, air, and soil. Pests can develop resistance to pesticides and previously unimportant pests can emerge

The health of the soil is also adversely affected. Certain micronutrients such as zinc, copper, and iron can become deficient in the soil over a period of time. As a result, it becomes increasingly difficult for farmers to sustain high yields year after year.

How can we face this critical dilemma of consistently obtaining high crop yields without polluting soil, air, and water, and without depleting soil fertility? The answer perhaps lies

In organic farming.

What is organic farming?

The aim of organic farming is to increase productivity with minimum reliance on chemicals, while at the same time conserving resources. It is a rediscovery of the practices of our ancestors, but with a modern and scientific outlook. It nurtures the soil rather than just a particular crop.

The use of synthetic chemicals is minimized (to the level of bare necessity). There is a greater reliance on conservation and use of all resources available on the farm, including animal, human, and plant wastes.

The goal of organic farming is to achieve stability without sacrificing high production and without polluting water, soil, and air.

It requires a multidimensional approach emolovina many practices.

Ecosystem integrated complex

Integrated nutrient management

- Use minimum tillage practices to conserve soil organic matter and biotic life including earthworms.

- Convert all available biomass on the farm into compost rather than burning or otherwise wasting it. (See Compost-making and Vermicomposting.)

- Add at least 2-3 tonnes of compost per hectare annually. The ideal is 10 tonnes per hectare.

- Apply green manure to the fields after every second or third year. For instance, prunings from gliricidia or other leguminous trees planted on bunds can be incorporated in the rice fields at the time of puddling. This can reduce or eliminate the need for artificial fertilizers.

Incorporate leguminous plant material into the soil.

- Make up soil deficiencies, if any, (on a soil test basis) by applying minerals such as rock phosphate, gypsum, and pyrites.

- Manage weeds using nonchemical methods, rather than trying to eradicate weeds. (See Nonchemical methods of weed control.)

- Leave the weeds taken out of the fields to form a mulch and to decompose in the soil itself Or use them for making compost.

- Adopt suitable crop rotations, mixed cropping and intercropping, instead of growing one and the same crop year after year. This uses soil layers, space, and sunlight differently..

- Include legumes in the rotation; inoculate them with rhizobium culture.

Incorporate leguminous plant material into the soil

Integrated pest and disease management

Organic farming uses various practices to manage the pest population at a safe level (one that does not cause economic injury) rather than completely destroying them using synthetic chemicals.

These practices include the following:

- Invert the soil after harvesting a crop to expose pests.

- Clean bunds and channels of grasses which harbour pests.

- Grow pest-tolerant varieties.

- Sow the crops at the right time.

- Sow healthy seeds.

- Increase the seed rate so that uprooting insectand disease-infected plants later does not affect optimum plant populations.

- Hand-pick and destroy egg masses, gregarious larvae, caterpillars, and adult beetles.

- Use light traps.

- Apply sticky grease bands on fruit trees to stop insects from crawling up the trunk.

- Release insect parasites and predators, and apply biological control agents such as Bacillus thurigensis.

- When pesticides are used, restrict these to a few mainly plant-based pesticides: neem, karanj products, derris (also known as rotenone), and pyrethrum

Integrated pest and disease management

Integrated soil and water management

Apply irrigation water efficiently to avoid wasting water and controlling soil erosion and loss of nutrients through runoff and leaching. For this:

- Irrigate your crops only when needed, use only the required amount of water. For instance, fields can be divided into small sections which can be irrigated separately.

- Do not apply excess water at any one time. Avoid leaching soil nutrients beyond the root zone.

- Keep your fields levelled.

- Consider constructing prefabricated concrete channels to avoid water seepage and leaching of nutrients.

- Harvest water by constructing bunds, channels, and tanks to store water for future use.

- Conserve water in the soil by using mulch, cultivating along the contour, and breaking the soil crust to slow the evaporation of water from the surface.

Integrated soil and water management

Contributors/Sources: Dr. V. N. Shroff, Mr. C. V. Sheshadri, Ms. Chitra Gandhi, Dr. W. R. Deshpande, and Dr. Jagdish Singh

Compost making

Turn organic waste into compost for improved soil fertility and sustained crop production.

What is composting?

Composting is a big-chemical process in which micro-organisms decompose organic waste matter-crop residue, kitchen wastes, cowdung, urine-into a soil-improving product called compost.

The final product is a uniform, black mass of rotten, nutrient rich manure.

Advantages of adding compost to soil

Compost:

- supplies nutrients.

- improves microbial activity, which helps release soil nutrients for use by plants.

- checks pollution from manure heaps and leaching of urine into the soil.

- reduces the need for chemical fertilizers which are costly and potentially damaging to the environment.

- increases the amount of organic carbon and nitrogen, improving physical properties of soil and allowing higher response to chemical fertilizers and higher crop yields.

- improves soil structure, improving drainage and making tillage easier.

- increases the water-holding capacity of soil.

- helps check wind erosion by improving soil structure.

Selection of site for composting

Your compost pit should be:

- easy to inspect.

- built on higher ground to avoid waterlogging.

- near the cattle shed and a source of water.

- located away from the road to avoid contamination by lead and other toxic metals which, in turn, could contaminate food crops affecting the health of humans and livestock.

Caution

Compost and farmyard manure are major sources of weed seeds. Weed seeds withstand partial decomposition, therefore, put only fully decomposed compost and farmyard manure on your fields.

Three methods for making compost

Indore method

1. Raw materials for composting

2. Plant residues-Mix plant residues, weeds, sugarcane tops, leaves, grass, wood ash, bran, etc. Chop and crush hard woody material

3. Dung-Collect dung and bedding of farm animals, including the urine-soaked mud from animal sheds.

4. Wood ash-Wood ash reduces compost acidity and adds potassium.

5. Water and air-Both are necessary for bacterial and fungal activity.

Size of the compost pit:

Width 2 to 2.75 m

Depth 0.75 to 1 m (not more than 1 m)

Length 3 m or more as required.

Method of filling the pit

1 Spread raw material evenly in the pit in layers 7 cm thick.

2 Add a layer of wood ash (if available) along with urine and mud.

3 Next spread a 5-cm layer of bedding with cattle dung and soil. Sprinkle with water until moist.

4 Continue adding layers until the material is 30 cm above ground level. Apply water. The heap will shrink as it decomposes.

5 Turn over the heap three times. Moisten with water each time.

To aerate, dig out the compost...

And then put it back in the pit.

Turning

Decomposition needs proper mixing as well as circulation of water and air. You can ensure this by turning over the material three times:

First turning 10-15 days after filling the pit.

Second turning 15 days later.

Third fuming after 2 months.

At the third turning, you can take it out of the pit and put it back in. This helps the bacteria to take nitrogen out of the air. In regions of heavy rainfall, compost pits should be covered by a shed. Compost-making should be discontinued between June and September.

Bangalore method

Raw material Same as for the Indore method.

Size of the pit

Width 2 m

Depth 1 m

Length 6 m

Method of filling the pit

1 Spread a 1 5-cm layer of farm refuse on the bottom of the pit and moisten this with water.

2 Follow this with a 5-cm layer of cattle dung and urine soaked mud.

3 Next apply a 2. 5- to 5-cm layer of soil.

4 Repeat the process until the heap is about 0.5 m above ground level.

The material decomposes within 8 to 9 months and the finished product is ready for use.

Nadep method (above ground)

Raw materials Waste organic material-about 1,500 kg. Cattle dung-90 to 100 kg (8-10 baskets) Dry-sieved soil-1,750 kg (120 baskets). Urine-soaked soil is most effective. Remove glass, stones, plastic, and other nondecomposable substances. Water-Enough to keep the pit moist.

Nadep method (above ground)

Tank construction

Build a rectangular tank (3 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m high) made of brick walls and floor with mud mortar. Leave holes in the tank walls for aeration (about four holes along each side wall and two holes in each end wall). Plaster the inner walls and the bottom of the tank with a mud and cow-dung mixture.

Method of filling

1. First layer-15-cm compact layer of plant waste material.

2. Second layer-Cow-dung slurry: about 4 kg of cow dung mixed with 10 buckets of water (drench thoroughly).

3. Third layer-Add a 2-cm layer of fine, sieved soil (60 to 65 kg).

4. Keep adding layers in this way until the material is heaped 15 cm above the lip of the tank. Add another 7-cm layer of fine soil on top of the heap. Seal the tank with cow-dung plaster.

For best results

- Build a temporary shed of thatch and bamboo to shield your compost tank from direct sunlight and rain.

- After three to four months, digestion (composting) is complete. Do not disturb the pit during this crucial period.

- Compost is dark and has a pleasant smell. Sieve this compost through a thick mesh and it is ready to use.

Contributor/Source: Dr. V. N. Shnoff and Dr. Jagdish Singh

Vermi-composting

What is vermi-composting?

Vermi-composting is the process by which earthworms convert organic waste into fertile manure. With a little knowledge of earthworms and an investment of time and some inexpensive materials, you can fertilize your garden with rich vermicompost.

Living composters

Earthworms live in the soil, mixing it, making it porous as they help decompose soil organic matter. Earthworm casts are the excrete of earthworms. These casts contain five times the nitrogen of ordinary soil, seven times the phosphorus, eleven times the potash, two times the calcium and magnesium, and eight times the actinomycetes (useful bacteria).

Earthworms:

- feed on soil and soil organic matter and convert it to compost, making the soil rich in nutrients.

- encourage growth of useful micro-organisms, which also make soil rich.

- aerate and pulverise soil.

- are natural tillers of the soil.

- make soil porous, improving drainage.

- increase the water-holding capacity of soil.

- produce enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and antibiotics, thereby increasing immunity of plants against some pests.

Advantages of vermi-compost over other fertilizers

- Low cost to produce

- Easy to use

- Not harmful to useful soil organisms

- Converts organic matter to useful plant food

- Source of income

Advantages of vermi-compost over other fertilizers

Earthworms suitable for vermi-composting There are two types of earthworm:

Surface feeders convert waste matter into humus. Surface feeders are needed for vermi-composting. Certain species introduced from Africa are very efficient humus producers. They can be bought from companies which produce vermicompost. Some important species: Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugivae, Perionyx excavates, Lumbricus rubellus.

Deep feeder move soil and humus around and aerate the soil. Most Indian earthworm species are deep-feeders and are not suitable for vermi-composting.

Materials required for vermi-composting For a 10-sq-m plot:

- Dry organic matter-200-300 kg

- Decomposed farmyard manure 300-400 kg

- Organic wastes-700-800 kg

- Earthworms-10,000

- Water-ready supply

Method of preparation

1 Erect a shed 5 m wide and 12 m long.

2 Under the roof of this shed, build a long, thin rectangular (1 m wide and 10 m long) bed of organic matter 15 cm deep.

3 On top of this, spread a layer of decomposed manure or biogas slurry 15 cm deep.

4 Moisten the bed with water and leave it for 48 hours.

5 Place earthworms uniformly at the rate of 1,000 per sq m on the top layer.

Raised bed

6. Spread a 20-cm layer of organic wastes, litter, etc., over the earthworms.

7. Cover with gunny cloth and sprinkle water regularly to keep the plot wet. During summer months, you might have to sprinkle water twice a day.

8. Turn the material after 30 days, cover it again with gunny cloth and keep it moist.

9. The whole material is converted to humus, called vermicompost, in 65-70 days.

10. You can build a second bed next to the first. Use the earthworms from the first bed to repeat the process. Two beds of this type will produce about 1 tonne of vermicompost every 3 months.

Cover and keep moist.

Turn after 30 days.

Replace cover and keep moist.

Application of vermi-compost

Field-2.5 tonnes per hectare

Pots-50 grams per pot

Trees-apply vermi-compost at the rate of 100-200 g per tree, or place 100-200 worms around the tree trunk.

Reproduction

Under ideal conditions, earthworms multiply 20 to 25 times in

65-70 days. Use a sieve to separate the vermi-compost from the earthworms.

Use the earthworms to repeat the above process to make vermi compost throughout the year.

Keep moist

- Surface-feeding earthworms can survive only if the surface soil is kept moist. This can be done with drip irrigation. (See

Efficient use of irrigation water.)

- Where surface soil dries out, apply vermicompost each year at the beginning of the rainy season.

Developing an earthworm population

You can develop an earthworm population by placing earthworms or worm casts in the soil. After this, it is not necessary to apply vermi-compost; simply apply organic matter which the worms will convert into compost.

Maintenance

Take care to maintain an optimum number of earthworms in your fields. Their population is adversely affected by:

- use of chemical fertilizers.

- use of certain pesticides against soil-borne pests.

- inappropriate cultivation techniques, like use of rotary cultivators.

- acidification of soil.

- insufficient organic matter in the soil.

Earthworms are your friends. Protect them and nurture them in your fields. Adding vermi-compost and reducing the application of inorganic fertilizers will increase populations of deepburrowing earthworms, which turn over and aerate the soil.

Contributors: Dr. W.R. Deshpande, Dr. Chitra Srivastara and Dr. Jagdish Singh

Bio-inoculants

Bio-inoculants are living organisms containing strains of specific bacteria, fungi, or algae which:

- take nitrogen from the air and make it available to plants- reducing the need for nitrogen fertilizer.

- make inorganic phosphate and micronutrients soluble and available to plants.

- collect and store available nutrients.

- enhance plant uptake of phosphorus and zinc.

- provide physical barriers against pathogens.

- stimulate plant growth.

- decompose organic residues.

Biological nitrogen-fixation

Atmospheric nitrogen is taken from the air-or "fixed"-by micro-organisms which live on some leguminous and non leguminous plants.

Rhizobium

These bacteria live in nodules on the roots of legumes. Legume seeds can be inoculated to encourage the growth of nitrogen fixing nodules.

Rhizobia:

- meet 80 to 90 percent of the nitrogen requirements of legume crops.

- increase production of legume crone.

- benefit successive crops.

- minimize the chance of crop failure.

- increase soil fertility.

- are cost effective.

- are pollution free.

Nodules on a legume plant

About 200 g of good quality rhizobium culture is enough to

An, treat 12-15 kg of seed. There are specific cultures for different crops. You can buy rhizobium inoculant from agricultural extension centres, agricultural universities, private dealers, and the National Biofertilizer Development Centre, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh.

Azotobacter and Azospirillum

These bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen in cereal crops. Azotobacter produce antifungal compounds against many plant pathogens and control nematode diseases. Azospirillum increase germination and improve vigour of young plants. One kg of seed needs 5 g of inoculant. This will fix 30 kg/ha of nitrogen per year.

Blue-green algae

Blue-green algae can fix 25-30 kg/ha of nitrogen per year. A paddy crop needs 10 kg/ha of algal powder, available from the National Biofertilizer Development Centre. Algal powder is not required after 3-4 years of continuous use in the field.

Blue-green algae in a paddy crop:

- produces 25-30 kg nitrogen (equivalent to 55-65 kg urea) per ha, and enhances yield 10 to 12 percent.

- is cost effective and pollution free.

- provides more oxygen to paddy roots.

- benefits the next crop.

Algae production

1. Prepare shallow trays (2 m x 1 m x 20 cm) of galvanized iron sheet. The size can be increased if more material is to be produced.

2. Spread 8-10 kg of soil and mix well with 200 g of super phosphate.

3. Add water to the trays (5 to 15 cm deep) depending on the rate of evaporation. The soil should be about neutral. If it is acidic, add lime.

4. After the soil has settled, sprinkle the algal culture on the surface of the standing water. Keep the trays in the open air, in direct sunlight.

5. Growth of the algae will be rapid in the hot summer months and in about 7 to 10 days they will form a thick mat. If the daily rate of evaporation is high, add water regularly. When the algal growth becomes sufficiently thick, stop watering.

Azolla

Azolla is a floating fresh water fern. It grows in stagnant water. The fern forms a green mat over the water surface. It readily decomposes to ammonia which is available to rice plants. Apply 10 kg of powdered, dry azolla fern per hectare.

Application Seed treatment-Rhizoblum and Azotobacter Top dressing-Rhizoblum, Azotobacter, PSM Crops Legumes-Rhizablum + PSM Cereal-Azotobacter + PSM Legumes mixed with nonlegumes-Rhizoblum + Azotobacter + PSM

For more information contact the National Biofertilizer Development Centre, CGO Complex 11, Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh 201002, India.

Mycorrhiza

Mycorrhiza are fungi which live in association with the roots of crops. The fungi stimulate plant growth, help the plants use phosphate, and protect the plants from disease. One kg of crop seed needs 7-10 g of inoculant, available from Mycology and Plant Pathology Division, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, and the Department of Botany, Delhi University.

PSM

Phosphate solubilising micro-organisms (PSM) convert soil phosphorus into forms that plants can use. To use PSM, mix 3 kg of PSM, 50 kg of farmyard manure, and the crop seed. Drill them together.

Methods of application

Bio-inoculants can be used two ways: as seed treatment and as top dressing in the soil.

Seed treatment

Moisten the seed and sprinkle the inoculum at a rate of 5-10 g per kg of moist seed. Mix thoroughly and dry in the shade for an hour. Sow the inoculated seed immediately.

Top dressing

For legumes, mix 1.5 kg rhizobium or 0.5 kg Azotobacter or 3 kg PSM in 50 kg of farmyard manure or compost. Top dress.

For cereals and millets, use 2 kg of PSM.

Broadcasting

Mix 3 kg of PSM with 100 kg of farmyard manure and broadcast the granular mixture. Can be broadcast in a standing crop seed treatment

Source: Dr. W. R. Deshpande

Multipurpose trees and shrubs

Selection criteria

Select tree species and varieties that have these features:

- Adaptability to local climatic conditions

- Multiple uses high demand and value of the produce

- Fast growth, short time to harvest

- Vigorous regrowth after cutting

- Nitrogen-fixing ability

- Ability to improve soil

- Compatible with ground vegetation

- Easy management

Fuel and fodder collection is hard, time-consuming work for farm women. Multipurpose trees, grown on the farm in an organized manner, can significantly improve farm incomes by providing food, fodder, fuelwood, timber, gum, and building and fence poles, while reducing drudgery for farm women.

Trees consume carbon dioxide and release vital oxygen, maintain cool weather, increase rainfall, and protect soil from erosion and loss of productivity.

Trees on farm land

Suitable multipurpose trees can be incorporated on farm lands for a variety of uses.

Mainly protective

Windbreaks and shelter belts

In places where wind erosion is severe, like arid and desert areas, wind breaks and shelter belts of trees, such as Israeli babul, can reduce erosion.

Live hedges

Species, like vilayati babul and brij babul, can be grown as hedges around fields. They can serve as animal barriers, reduce soil erosion, and provide fodder, timber, and fuelwood.

Trees have many uses.

Soil conservation

Species, like desi babul, ardu, and shisham, are reported to be good soil binders and help conserve soil.

Mainly productive

Boundary planting

Many tree species, such as eucalyptus, can be grown around farm boundaries for additional returns without adversely affecting crop yields. Care must be taken in site selection to avoid crop shading. Tree roots should be pruned by digging a trench along the crop boundary.

Agri-silvipasture, agri-horticulture

Forest trees, like shisham, anjan, subabul, and fruit trees, like aonla, guava, mulberry, and ber, can be introduced at suitable spacings in agricultural systems to stabilize the farm system and provide additional returns.

Silvipasture, hortipasture

As above, many of the same forest and fruit trees can be introduced in pastures and grasslands.

Home gardens

In humid regions, a mixture of many trees and shrubs in a multitier system can be profitable and ecologically sustainable.

Alley cropping

Hedges of subabul and gliricidia can be grown 8-10 m apart. Crops can be planted between the hedges. The hedges should be pruned regularly and the prunings used as mulch or fodder.

Multipurpose woodlots

Multipurpose trees, like babul, desi siris, shisham, eucalyptus, sesbania, subabul, ber, casuarina, neem, and kathal, can be planted on community bunds for fuelwood, charcoal, timber, poles, medicine, gum, pulp, and fodder.

Contributors: Dr. Punjab Singh and Dr. R S. Chillar

Source: FAO UNO

Feeding Animals on Straw

Method of Treatment

The cultivation of cereals produces large quantities of residues in the form of straw. These residues are poor feed for cattle and are often wasted. However, straw can be a suitable feed if it is treated with a water solution of urea.

Straw as animal feed

The cultivation of rice or other cereals such as wheat, maize or sorghum often produces large quantities of residues in the form of straw and stalks. These residues are poor feed for cattle. buffaloes. sheer and goats and are often wasted. They may serve as maintenance fodder, but animals that are fed straw alone will probably lose weight for the following reasons:

• It is difficult for the animals to eat very much, as they have problems digesting the straw.
• Straw has a poor nutritional value.

However, straw can be a suitable feed if it is treated with a water solution of urea. The treatment enables the animals to improve their digestion of the straw, which permits them to eat more of it.

It has been demonstrated that even if as little as one third of the straw is treated, the animals will be stimulated to eat more of the untreated straw.

The differences between untreated and treated straw are as follows:

Untreated straw	Treated straw
- Poor-quality feed	- Reasonable-quality feed
- Unpalatable, so animals eat little	- Palatable so animals eat more
- Animals lose weight	- Animals gain weight
- Animals produce more milk

Treatment of straw

This section explains how cereal residues such as straw and stalks can be treated to become a suitable fodder for milk production and fattening. The method is simple:

A water solution containing 5 percent urea is applied to the straw.

- The straw is kept airtight for one to three weeks. It is then ready to use as feed.

Treatment is preferable where straw constitutes over half of the diet because other feeds are scarce and where higher levels of production are aimed at.

The method needs some planning, but it is not difficult. Straw, urea and water have to be mixed in the right proportion and correctly stored. This is explained later

To treat or not to treat

The decision to treat or not to treat is the farmer's. Farmers will be most interested in feeding treated straw to milking and fattening animals, which give an immediate monetary return.

Feeding with treated straw costs money daily, but this cost can be balanced by a regular income from the sale of milk.

Income from fattening animals is not received until some time later. Fattening therefore requires farmers either to have their own money or to have credit for purchasing urea.

Farmers are usually less willing to spend money on better feed for bullocks, dry or sterile cows and young stock. The monetary return from feeding working animals treated straw will come much later, when the crop is sold. The other important point is that bullocks can sometimes do surprisingly well on basal diets of untreated straw.

If a sterile or dry cow is used for work, farmers may feed it like a bullock. This is acceptable for the sterile cow, but not the dry cow. If the dry cow is going to calve within two or three months, it must be well to have a healthy calf and more milk during lactation.

There are very good reasons to feed treated straw to working and milking cows. It will enable them to maintain their body condition and milk production. There is no doubt that calves and heifers will grow faster if they are fed treated straw. However, this is often a low priority for farmers because of a scarcity of ready money.

In all cases to make full use of the treated straw, the animals will require supplementation.

Supplementation

The way in which treated straw should be fed to animals depends on the situation. For moderate to high levels of milk production, animals require supplementation, preferably with oilseed cakes, cereal brans or polishings. Fattening animals also require feed supplements. Growing animals older than one year and working bullocks require only small quantities of supplements and, with straw of good quality, these two types of animal may require no supplement at all. However, it is best to feed them as much treated straw as they can eat.

Cows and fattening animals are used for work in several countries - at least during the most busy part of the cultivation season. To avoid a reduction in milk production and a reduced liveweight gain, while the animals are working they should be allowed to eat as much treated straw as possible. Supplements must also be added to the treated straw to get the full benefit. Supplements can be:

• cottonseed or other oilseed cakes;
• small quantities of green fodder, preferably from legumes, whether cultivated or from tree leaves;
• bonemeal.

It is also important that the animals receive sufficient water to drink.

Does it pay?

It costs money and labour to treat straw. Is it profitable? Not always. If animals have access throughout the year to enough grass, other green fodder or hay of good quality, there is no reason to feed them treated straw.

Straw as main feed

Where there is a scarcity of grass, green fodder or hay, but where there is plenty of straw, feeding with treated straw should be considered. In this case, straw is used instead of being wasted.

A larger herd

Farmers who want to keep more animals than they can feed with grass or green fodder can do so if they have enough straw of good quality. Here also, straw is put to good use instead of being wasted.

Whether it is profitable to feed treated straw will depend on local prices. The price of straw, supplements and urea as well as of milk, meat and labour is an important consideration.

How to treat straw

What tools are needed?

A scale to weigh the straw.

Weigh the straw

A typical basket or bundle of straw should be weighed with a spring balance or similar weighing scale.

containing 0.5 kg urea.

A measure

A 1 0- litre watering can or bucket.

A big barrel or trough which can contain a large quantity of water.

Which types of straw can be treated?

Straw from cereals. Straw from all types of cereal and even poor- quality hay - can be used. Rice straw is normally so soft that it can be used as it is. Wheat, barley and oat straw does not need to be chopped if it is compressed during treatment. This can be done by placing a layer of soil on top of the straw.

Stalks. Stalks of maize, millet and sorghum can be used but need to be chopped or extremely well compressed during treatment by placing a heavy layer of soil or stones on top of them.

Wet straw and stalks. Straw or stalks can become wet from rain but, if they are fresh, there are no problems in treating them. In fact treatment is a way to prevent them from being spoiled. Water can be saved and a stronger urea solution applied. Because of the high content of water in wet straw and stalks, the quantity of urea should be reduced to half. It is difficult to be completely accurate but the rule is that a 5 percent urea solution should be applied on an air- dried basis.

Mouldy or rotten straw and stalks. These must never be used. They will make poor and dangerous feed.

How much straw to treat?

Animals have different appetites, but you should use approximately 3 to 3.5 kg of treated straw daily per 100 kg of animal liveweight. Thus, an animal weighing 200 kg will need 3 to 3.5 x 2 = 6 to 7 kg. A young animal weighing 75 kg will only need 3 to 3.5 kg x 0.75 = 2 to 2.5 kg. If you plan to feed the animals as much as they will eat, you can expect them to eat one- third more treated than untreated straw. (See the following table.)

Untreated and treated straw feed quantities according to liveweight

Animal liveweight	Untreated straw	Treated straw
100 kg	2.0 - 2 5 kg	3.0 - 3.5 kg
200 kg	4.0 - 5.0 kg	6.0 - 7.0 kg
300 kg	6.0 - 7.5 kg	9.0 - 10.5 kg
400 kg	8.0 - 10.0 kg	12.0 - 14.0 kg

The urea solution

As an example, if you want to treat 10 kg of air- dried straw (straw that is dry enough for stacking), you need to dissolve 0.5 kg of urea in 5 litres of water. But if you want to treat 100 kg of air- dried straw, you need to dissolve 5 kg of urea in 50 litres of water. (See the following table.)

Amount of urea solution required

Straw	Water	Urea
50 kg	25 litres	2.5 kg
100 kg	50 litres	5.0 kg
200 kg	100 litres	10.0 kg

and stir until the urea has completely dissolved.

Mix the urea and the water

The urea solution should be distributed evenly, using a watering can or something similar.

Storage during treatment

There are different ways to store wet straw that is undergoing treatment. The best result is obtained when the straw is kept airtight. This condition can be achieved in several ways. Following are some examples.

Trampling the wet straw carefully before sealing the stack is an important first step.

Trampling the wet straw carefully

The straw can be stacked against a wall or in a corner and covered with old bags, banana leaves or bamboo mats and a layer of soil or clay to ensure airtight conditions.

The smaller the quantity of straw, the greater the care needed to make it airtight.

Make it airtight

The straw can be stacked in a separate heap and sealed with a mud plaster.

Separate heap

Chicken- wire or welded wire mesh can be used to make a stack, lined with used plastic sheets or old fertilizer bags.

Make a stack

The straw can be stacked in smaller or bigger clamps made of locally available materials.

Smaller or bigger clamps

Depending on the site where treatment is actually taking place there may be other possibilities. The point is that every effort should be made to keep the straw in an airtight condition during treatment.

Treatment time

The straw should now be kept in an airtight condition for one to five weeks before it can be fed to the animals. A short treatment time can be used when it is hot (25 to 30°C) and a long treatment time when it is cold (below 15°C). Urea as a source of ammonia does not work below 5 to 10°C. A way to bypass this problem is to treat large quantities before it gets too cold.

Following are the signs of successful treatment:

- The straw has changed colour to dark yellow or brown.
- The straw has a strong ammonia smell.
- The straw is softer than untreated straw.
- The animals - after adapting - eat one- third more treated than untreated straw.

Adapting the animals

You can adapt animals to the treated straw over a week or ten days by gradually mixing more and more of the treated straw into the fodder they are used to. Adaptation can be quicker if animals are used to eating straw and if the treated straw is left out in the fresh air for some hours before it is eaten. This practice should only be required during the first week to ten days. It should then be stopped and the straw taken directly from the stack for feeding.