Feeding Animals on Straw

Method of Treatment

The cultivation of cereals produces large quantities of residues in the form of straw. These residues are poor feed for cattle and are often wasted. However, straw can be a suitable feed if it is treated with a water solution of urea.

Straw as animal feed

The cultivation of rice or other cereals such as wheat, maize or sorghum often produces large quantities of residues in the form of straw and stalks. These residues are poor feed for cattle. buffaloes. sheer and goats and are often wasted. They may serve as maintenance fodder, but animals that are fed straw alone will probably lose weight for the following reasons:

• It is difficult for the animals to eat very much, as they have problems digesting the straw.
• Straw has a poor nutritional value.

However, straw can be a suitable feed if it is treated with a water solution of urea. The treatment enables the animals to improve their digestion of the straw, which permits them to eat more of it.

It has been demonstrated that even if as little as one third of the straw is treated, the animals will be stimulated to eat more of the untreated straw.

The differences between untreated and treated straw are as follows:

Untreated straw	Treated straw
- Poor-quality feed	- Reasonable-quality feed
- Unpalatable, so animals eat little	- Palatable so animals eat more
- Animals lose weight	- Animals gain weight
- Animals produce more milk

Treatment of straw

This section explains how cereal residues such as straw and stalks can be treated to become a suitable fodder for milk production and fattening. The method is simple:

A water solution containing 5 percent urea is applied to the straw.

- The straw is kept airtight for one to three weeks. It is then ready to use as feed.

Treatment is preferable where straw constitutes over half of the diet because other feeds are scarce and where higher levels of production are aimed at.

The method needs some planning, but it is not difficult. Straw, urea and water have to be mixed in the right proportion and correctly stored. This is explained later

To treat or not to treat

The decision to treat or not to treat is the farmer's. Farmers will be most interested in feeding treated straw to milking and fattening animals, which give an immediate monetary return.

Feeding with treated straw costs money daily, but this cost can be balanced by a regular income from the sale of milk.

Income from fattening animals is not received until some time later. Fattening therefore requires farmers either to have their own money or to have credit for purchasing urea.

Farmers are usually less willing to spend money on better feed for bullocks, dry or sterile cows and young stock. The monetary return from feeding working animals treated straw will come much later, when the crop is sold. The other important point is that bullocks can sometimes do surprisingly well on basal diets of untreated straw.

If a sterile or dry cow is used for work, farmers may feed it like a bullock. This is acceptable for the sterile cow, but not the dry cow. If the dry cow is going to calve within two or three months, it must be well to have a healthy calf and more milk during lactation.

There are very good reasons to feed treated straw to working and milking cows. It will enable them to maintain their body condition and milk production. There is no doubt that calves and heifers will grow faster if they are fed treated straw. However, this is often a low priority for farmers because of a scarcity of ready money.

In all cases to make full use of the treated straw, the animals will require supplementation.

Supplementation

The way in which treated straw should be fed to animals depends on the situation. For moderate to high levels of milk production, animals require supplementation, preferably with oilseed cakes, cereal brans or polishings. Fattening animals also require feed supplements. Growing animals older than one year and working bullocks require only small quantities of supplements and, with straw of good quality, these two types of animal may require no supplement at all. However, it is best to feed them as much treated straw as they can eat.

Cows and fattening animals are used for work in several countries - at least during the most busy part of the cultivation season. To avoid a reduction in milk production and a reduced liveweight gain, while the animals are working they should be allowed to eat as much treated straw as possible. Supplements must also be added to the treated straw to get the full benefit. Supplements can be:

• cottonseed or other oilseed cakes;
• small quantities of green fodder, preferably from legumes, whether cultivated or from tree leaves;
• bonemeal.

It is also important that the animals receive sufficient water to drink.

Does it pay?

It costs money and labour to treat straw. Is it profitable? Not always. If animals have access throughout the year to enough grass, other green fodder or hay of good quality, there is no reason to feed them treated straw.

Straw as main feed

Where there is a scarcity of grass, green fodder or hay, but where there is plenty of straw, feeding with treated straw should be considered. In this case, straw is used instead of being wasted.

A larger herd

Farmers who want to keep more animals than they can feed with grass or green fodder can do so if they have enough straw of good quality. Here also, straw is put to good use instead of being wasted.

Whether it is profitable to feed treated straw will depend on local prices. The price of straw, supplements and urea as well as of milk, meat and labour is an important consideration.

How to treat straw

What tools are needed?

A scale to weigh the straw.

Weigh the straw

A typical basket or bundle of straw should be weighed with a spring balance or similar weighing scale.

containing 0.5 kg urea.

A measure

A 1 0- litre watering can or bucket.

A big barrel or trough which can contain a large quantity of water.

Which types of straw can be treated?

Straw from cereals. Straw from all types of cereal and even poor- quality hay - can be used. Rice straw is normally so soft that it can be used as it is. Wheat, barley and oat straw does not need to be chopped if it is compressed during treatment. This can be done by placing a layer of soil on top of the straw.

Stalks. Stalks of maize, millet and sorghum can be used but need to be chopped or extremely well compressed during treatment by placing a heavy layer of soil or stones on top of them.

Wet straw and stalks. Straw or stalks can become wet from rain but, if they are fresh, there are no problems in treating them. In fact treatment is a way to prevent them from being spoiled. Water can be saved and a stronger urea solution applied. Because of the high content of water in wet straw and stalks, the quantity of urea should be reduced to half. It is difficult to be completely accurate but the rule is that a 5 percent urea solution should be applied on an air- dried basis.

Mouldy or rotten straw and stalks. These must never be used. They will make poor and dangerous feed.

How much straw to treat?

Animals have different appetites, but you should use approximately 3 to 3.5 kg of treated straw daily per 100 kg of animal liveweight. Thus, an animal weighing 200 kg will need 3 to 3.5 x 2 = 6 to 7 kg. A young animal weighing 75 kg will only need 3 to 3.5 kg x 0.75 = 2 to 2.5 kg. If you plan to feed the animals as much as they will eat, you can expect them to eat one- third more treated than untreated straw. (See the following table.)

Untreated and treated straw feed quantities according to liveweight

Animal liveweight	Untreated straw	Treated straw
100 kg	2.0 - 2 5 kg	3.0 - 3.5 kg
200 kg	4.0 - 5.0 kg	6.0 - 7.0 kg
300 kg	6.0 - 7.5 kg	9.0 - 10.5 kg
400 kg	8.0 - 10.0 kg	12.0 - 14.0 kg

The urea solution

As an example, if you want to treat 10 kg of air- dried straw (straw that is dry enough for stacking), you need to dissolve 0.5 kg of urea in 5 litres of water. But if you want to treat 100 kg of air- dried straw, you need to dissolve 5 kg of urea in 50 litres of water. (See the following table.)

Amount of urea solution required

Straw	Water	Urea
50 kg	25 litres	2.5 kg
100 kg	50 litres	5.0 kg
200 kg	100 litres	10.0 kg

and stir until the urea has completely dissolved.

Mix the urea and the water

The urea solution should be distributed evenly, using a watering can or something similar.

Storage during treatment

There are different ways to store wet straw that is undergoing treatment. The best result is obtained when the straw is kept airtight. This condition can be achieved in several ways. Following are some examples.

Trampling the wet straw carefully before sealing the stack is an important first step.

Trampling the wet straw carefully

The straw can be stacked against a wall or in a corner and covered with old bags, banana leaves or bamboo mats and a layer of soil or clay to ensure airtight conditions.

The smaller the quantity of straw, the greater the care needed to make it airtight.

Make it airtight

The straw can be stacked in a separate heap and sealed with a mud plaster.

Separate heap

Chicken- wire or welded wire mesh can be used to make a stack, lined with used plastic sheets or old fertilizer bags.

Make a stack

The straw can be stacked in smaller or bigger clamps made of locally available materials.

Smaller or bigger clamps

Depending on the site where treatment is actually taking place there may be other possibilities. The point is that every effort should be made to keep the straw in an airtight condition during treatment.

Treatment time

The straw should now be kept in an airtight condition for one to five weeks before it can be fed to the animals. A short treatment time can be used when it is hot (25 to 30°C) and a long treatment time when it is cold (below 15°C). Urea as a source of ammonia does not work below 5 to 10°C. A way to bypass this problem is to treat large quantities before it gets too cold.

Following are the signs of successful treatment:

- The straw has changed colour to dark yellow or brown.
- The straw has a strong ammonia smell.
- The straw is softer than untreated straw.
- The animals - after adapting - eat one- third more treated than untreated straw.

Adapting the animals

You can adapt animals to the treated straw over a week or ten days by gradually mixing more and more of the treated straw into the fodder they are used to. Adaptation can be quicker if animals are used to eating straw and if the treated straw is left out in the fresh air for some hours before it is eaten. This practice should only be required during the first week to ten days. It should then be stopped and the straw taken directly from the stack for feeding.

Rice Clam Culture

Corbicula fluminea is a species of freshwater clam, an aquatic bivalve mollusk in family Corbiculidae.

This species is of originally mainly Asian origin and thus it is often commonly called Asian clam or Asiatic clam. In the aquarium and koi pond trade it is often call Golden Clam or Golden Freshwater Clam. In Southeast Asia it is known as the prosperity clam or good luck clam.

Native species clam originally occurs in Russia, Thailand, Philippines, China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, but also in parts of Africa.

Clams (Agihis in Hiligaynon)

Clams grow naturally in many rice paddies and rural people have traditionally harvested them. This was true until chemical use in rice paddies resulted in the elimination of these clams in many areas. Intentional culturing of clams simply adds one extra step to the traditional clam harvesting -the seeding of clams.

From work with farmers in Quirino province, it was found that:

· Clam culture in rice serves as a buffer against unforeseen crop losses due to flooding or diseases like tungro.

· Clam production serves as a source of additional income (in 1 hectare paddy the average yield was 226 kg marketable clams valued at P1,800/ha.)

· In addition to extra income, the clams serve as a source of protein and minerals for the farmer's family.

PROCEDURE:

1. 20-25 days after planting, increase the irrigation water in the paddies to the maximum tolerable depth proportionate to the rice plant (approximately 5 cm depth). If the crop needs weeding, the rotary weeder can be used before irrigation.

Increase the irrigation water in the paddies

 2. Let the water stand for 2 days to soften the soil and to neutralize sold toxicity or pesticide residues.

Let the water stand for 2 days

 3. On the third day, drain the water and replace it with fresh irrigation water to the depth mentioned above.

Drain the water and replace it with fresh irrigation water

 4. Evenly broadcast baby clams along the rice furrows. Seeding should be done in every other furrow.

Evenly broadcast baby

 5. Harvest the clams as soon as they reach the desired marketable size (size of the new P50 coin) or just before harvesting the rice.

Harvest the clams

Note:

· Avoid using chemical insecticides; as a substitute, use botanicals.
· Don't introduce carp into the paddies seeded with clams. Carp eat clams.
· Faster growth of clams is attained when fields are fertilized with organic materials.
· Medium- to long-maturing rice varieties should be used in clam-rice culture. This allows the clams   to stay longer in the paddy field.
· Rice-clam system is best suited to areas where there is a continuous supply of water.

Clams Recipe

Backyard Duck Raising for Meat and Eggs

Backyard duck raising for meat and eggs

WHY RAISE DUCKS?

Ducks are one of the most practical, versatile and useful waterfowls to raise. Duck raising offers several benefits:

• Ducks are efficient producers of animal protein.
• Ducks provide both eggs and meat, for consumption or for sale.
• Ducks require limited space, simple shelter and minimal care.
• Ducks are resistant to diseases and thrive in harsh conditions.
• Ducks control harmful insects, unwanted aquatic weeds and golden snails.
• Duck manure is an excellent organic fertilizer.
• Ducks eat aquatic plants, grasses, vegetable trimmings, golden snails, insects and farm byproducts. Thus, providing feed is not a problem.

WHAT BREED TO RAISE FOR MEAT AND EGGS:

The Muscovy is a multipurpose breed for meat and eggs. The most popular Muscovy ducks raised are the white and black types. They lay from 80-120 eggs/yr and produce an excellent quality meat.

The Khaki Campbell breed is more efficient for egg production as compared to other breeds. A single duck is capable of producing 250-350 eggs/yr.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS:

Since ducks are small, a simple shed with one open side can provide adequate shelter. A 1 1/2 m x 5 m x 1 m high shelter can accommodate 40-50 adult ducks. To prevent the ducks from destroying vegetables and other crops, they should be confined in a fenced structure made from locally available materials.

Farm litter (e.g., rice straw) should be placed in the shed for laying and brooding purposes.

STARTING A BACKYARD PROJECT:

A beginner can start with 7 ducks -- one male (drake) and 6 female (ducklets). It is preferable to acquire ducks that are from 1-2 years of age.

FEEDS AND FEEDING:

Muscovy ducks are voracious eaters and eat practically anything they are fed. For maximum growth, ducks should be fed with natural, local feeds such as empty grains (rice), rice and corn bran, ipil-ipil leaves, golden snails, duck weed, Azolla, banana trunks, worms, etc. They should be fed three times a day and provided with fresh water always. Used tires or old cooking utensils can be used for waterers and feeders. Twenty-five ducks can be raised in a 1-hectare farm using on-farm feeds without commercial feeds.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT:

To prevent a disease outbreak, animals should be regularly vaccinated against common diseases (e.g., Newcastle, Fowl Pox or Fowl Cholera). De-worming and other health care practices, such as proper sanitation, correct feeding and proper care and management, must be strictly implemented to ensure a disease-free flock. New birds introduced into a flock should be quarantined to ensure that they are disease-free. Sick birds should also be isolated from healthy stock during treatment.

OTHER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES:

Hatching

Ducks start to lay eggs after reaching 6 months of age. One medium-size duck is capable of hatching 12-15 eggs during the 30-33 day incubation period. Layers are usually productive from 1218 months. At the end of that production period, layers should be culled and eaten or sold.

The fertility of eggs can be determined using a simple technique known as candling. Eggs should be candled (on the 15th day of incubation) in a dark room using at candle, lamp or flashlight. Fertile eggs reveal a small dark spot with a network of blood vessels branching out from it or the eggs appear dark. Infertile eggs are clear with the yolk appearing as a floating shadow. Do not throw away infertile eggs; they are delicious as well as nutritious and can be eaten or processed into salted or hard-boiled eggs to be sold for extra income.

Duckling Rearing

Young ducklings must be kept warm and dry. It is best to keep them out of water until they are 2 weeks old. However, they must have a constant supply of fresh drinking water. The ducklings should be fed fine rice bran and boiled rice. Cracked corn or rice should be fed to them after they are several weeks old.

It is very important to protect the ducklings from predators such as cats. dogs; rodents, birds, etc. One method of protecting the ducklings is to confine the hen and her brood in a covered pen each night until the ducklings are 6-8 weeks old.

Marketing

Meat-type birds are ready to be slaughtered, dressed and marketed at 5-6 months of age.

DUCK MANAGEMENT WITHIN A RICE SYSTEM:

Two pen/shelter design options are presented here:

The duck pen and shelter is constructed over the irrigation canal The floor is made of bamboo slats spaced so as to allow the droppings to fall into the water below, but not to trap and injure the ducks' feet. The floor should slope slightly to allow the eggs to collect on one side of the pen, thus facilitating daily egg collection. This design allows the duck droppings to fall directly into the water and be carried to the rice paddies through the irrigation canal. One disadvantage to this design, however, is the possible danger of housing the ducks directly over the water during colder times of the year

The duck pen and shelter

The other design places the shelter near, but not over, the irrigation canal. Cover the floor with 4-6 inches of dry bedding material i.e., rice straw. Remove the old bedding materials weekly and place them in a compost pit for future incorporation into the rice paddies as fertilizer.

The is shelter near, but not over, the irrigation canal

Ducks should be given adequate time to forage for their food. The ducks should be released from their house in the morning after they have laid their eggs (about 7:00 a.m.). The most important consideration is that the ducks be released at the same time every morning. If they are released at different times every day, the change can upset them, causing them to stop laying eggs and even begin to molt. They should be herded back to the pen about 5:30 in the afternoon. Giving them some feeds regularly at this time also trains them to return to their pen.

Ducks should be released onto the rice-fields only at certain times:

• During plowing and harrowing.
• After the tillering stage, but not during the flowering and heading stage of the ricecrop.
• After the rice has been harvested and threshed.

When it is not possible to release the ducks into the rice-field, they should be taken to an area where no crops are grown. If no such area is available, the ducks can be fed in confinement.

Vegetable-Duck-Fish Culture (Tinola Garden)

Tinola garden, as the name implies, is a type of garden where major ingredients in the preparation of tinola (a kind of poultry or fish soup with vegetables) are found in a 200 sq.m area.

Vegetable-duck-fish culture

BASIC COMPONENTS:

a. Duck raising for meat and/or eggs
b. Mini-fishpond
c. Vegetable growing

This vegetable-duck-fish culture is actually a modification of the original mini-fishpond operation. This technology, however, optimizes land use by planting vegetables on the dikes, fence and the construction of trellis over the mini-pond. Depending on the preferences of the farmer, dikes could be planted with different vegetables and crops (e.g., leaf, fruit, root or legumes) and areas along the fence and trellis with any climbing vegetables.

ADVANTAGES:

Some of the advantages of this tinola garden are the following:

• increase in quantity and variety of food for home consumption
• ensures fresh supply of poultry meat and eggs, fish and vegetables
• practical for those farmers whose land area is less than 1.0 hectare and adopting the rice fish culture.

NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS:

A. Vegetables

• On the trellis and fence -- squash, patola and other climbing vegetables.
• After the construction of pond dikes, the trellis could be constructed and planting of varieties of crops could immediately follow.

B. Mini-fishpond

• The dikes should be at least 1 m high, 1/2 m wide on the top and 1 m wide at the base.
•  Water inside the pond must not be more than 1/2 m (to minimize fish losses).
• Recommended fish for stocking is Tilapia (Tilapia nilotica) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) at the rate of 3 fingerlings/sq.m.
• Low-cost feeds may include rice bran, crushed snails and kitchen refuse.

Note: Refer to technology paper on Rice-Fish Culture for feeding and other management techniques.

C. Duck-Raising

Shed house (4 m x 1 m) made of low-cost and locally available materials (e.g., bamboo, ipil-ipil, madre de cacao, cogon, nipa, etc.) located in a 25 sq.m area in one section of the pond.

• Feeding troughs and waterers using old jeep or truck tires, clay pots or old cooking utensils.
• Stock: 8-12 heads (any species, depending on the farmer).
• Feeds may consist of rice bran, crushed banana trunk, crushed snails, kitchen refuse, kangkong, etc. Feeding is done twice a day.

Note: For more detailed information on duck raising, please see the technology paper on Backyard Duck Raising for Meat and Eggs.

Care and management of mini-ponds

The secret of success in growing fish in mini-ponds is proper care of the fish and management of the pond. Good pond management and care of the fish means faster growth and more fish for the family. The major points to remember are the following:

1. POND CONSTRUCTION

Care and management of mini-ponds

• Establish the mini-pond near a water source such as streams, springs, irrigation canals or manually operated pumps (pitcher pump), etc., which is free from flooding and with good drainage.
• The soil at the bottom and side of the minipond must be well packed to minimize seepage. If the soil is sandy or porous, line it with a mixture of carabao or cow dung, clay soil and cement.
• Plant grasses on the banks to prevent soil erosion. Grasses that grow fast and spread rapidly are ideal for this purpose.
• Put screens on the inlet and overflow pipes to prevent the entrance of predators and at the same- time to keep the fish from escaping.

2. WATER—QUALITY, DEPTH AND TEMPERATURE

• Water is of vital importance in raising fish. Always make sure that it is free from toxic substances, of the right temperature and the proper volume (depth). However, the warmwater fish do not require a constant supply of a large volume of fresh water. Most freshwater fish can be raised with water temperature ranging from 20°C - 40°C.
• The ideal water temperature ranges from 25°C - 30°C. In order to maintain the right temperature, plant leguminous trees like ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), katuray (Sesbania grandiflora), madre de cacao (Gliricidia septum) and Dapdap (Erythina) on two sides of the mini-pond, about 1.5 m - 2 m from the bank. Orient the planting of trees on the east-west direction to allow enough sunlight into the pond. The leaf litter also serves to improve aquatic life.
• Occasionally, the water in the pond becomes turbid and muddy. To check the turbidity of water apply lime at the rate of 1 tbsp/sq.m. Dissolve the lime water and sprinkle it over the pond.
• Maintain water depth at 1 m so that the sun's rays can penetrate the water and induce the growth of plankton (natural fish food). Production of plankton decreases as water depth increases. In shallow water (.5 m), the water temperature easily gets high during summer. High temperature retards fish growth.
• Avoid letting the water out from the pond to prevent the fertilizers and plankton from flowing out.
• Drain the pond once a year. Keep it dry for a period of 2-3 weeks to aerate the soil.

3. POND FERTILIZATION

Fertilize the pond

Any kind of animal manure can be used

• The production of algae and microorganisms in the mini-pond is the most important task for the low-cost production of fish. Fertilize the pond at least twice a month for the water to remain greenish. Green color indicates that the water has plenty of small plants and microorganisms which serve as nutritious food for the fish.
• Any kind of animal manure can be used. However, chicken manure makes a better fertilizer. Apply .5-1 kg chicken manure/m. The manure can be placed directly in one corner of the pond or put in a burlap sack and submerged 20 cm below the water surface. Never broadcast the manure on the surface as this, in turn, will reduce sunlight entry into the water, resulting in poor plankton growth.
• Dried leaves of leguminous trees can also be used to fertilize the pond. Put the leaves in porous bags and submerge in water 20 cm below the surface. One to two sacks of dried leaves can help fertilize the mini-pond. Dried rice straw can also be dumped directly in one corner of the pond. Occasional broadcasting of green leaves of leguminous trees (smallleaf varieties such as Calliandra, Leucaena, etc.) is also very helpful and promotes aquatic life.
• If a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizer is desired, 500 9 of organic fertilizer and 10 9 of inorganic fertilizer (preferably urea or 16-20-0)/m water can be applied to produce good results.
• On soils or water that are acidic, lime must be added. It can be broadcast on the bottom of the pond or put in a porous bag. Tie the bag to prevent it from submerging into the bottom of the pond. If lime is not available, it can be substituted by aged wood ash (not fresh ash or ash from paper).

4. FINGERLINGS

Stock only high-quality fingerlings. Secure your fingerlings from reliable hatcheries.

5. FEEDS AND FEEDING

• For faster growth, fish should be given supplemental feeds. A diet consisting of 20-30% ground ipil-ipil leaves or Azolla and 70-80% fine rice bran is recommended.
• When affordable, supplemental feeding of 100% fine rice bran is still the most economical (when natural food plankton in the mini-pond is abundant).
• Feed the fish twice a day, morning and afternoon.
• For a more efficient feeding, mash the feeds and place in a feeding tray made of fish net.
• The fish can also be fed with green leaves of kangkong, sweet potato, Azolla, kitchen leftovers, boiled sweet potato, cassava, gabi, crushed golden snails and white ants (termites).
• Surplus tilapia fingerlings (fresh) can be crushed and mixed with fine rice bran. This diet is very nutritious.
• Other cheap methods of feeding fish are:

1 Hanging a lighted lamp over the center of the pond. At night, insects are attracted to the light and hover around it. The insects will fall into the pond where the fish can eat them.

2. Feeding the fish with maggots (small worms). To produce maggots, hang pieces of meat or dead animals on a pole 2-3 ft above the water surface. Flies and other insects will lay their eggs on the meat or dead animals. After 2-3 days, maggots will come out and fall into the water.

6. CONTROL OF OVERPOPULATION

Overpopulation of fish is one of the problems in raising fish (tilapia) in mini-ponds. To obtain good yields of harvestable or marketable size of fish, population control is necessary. Any of the following methods may be used:

• Scooping the fry with a fine net early in the morning and late in the afternoon. The fries swim at the edges of the pond at this time of the day.
• Introducing predators into the pond such as mudfish (dalag) and catfish (hito) at 2% of the total stocking rate. To prevent predators from preying on the original stock, the size of the predators must be smaller than the original stock and should weigh less than one gram.

7. HARVESTING

• After 4-5 months, the bigger fish can already be harvested. Catch them with a hook and line using earthworms or golden snails as bait or use a sweep net.
• Harvest only enough fish for the family to consume.
• To ensure a continuous supply of fish for the family, replace the number of fish harvested immediately by collecting fingerlings from the breeding/hatchery pond.