Low-external Input Rice Production - Chapter 8 - Farm Management

A guide to decision-making for technology adoption based on production costs

Production costs are those expenses which farmers encounter while producing a crop. These costs include fixed costs (i.e., irrigation fees, land rental, etc.) as well as variable costs (i.e., seed, fertilizer, labor, etc.). Fixed costs are paid by farmers just to begin farm operations; in other words, you have to rent land and pay for irrigation to be able to begin to sow a crop. Variable costs, as the name indicates, vary according to the mode and scale of production. Therefore, variable costs of farm operations provide the best opportunity to small-scale farmers to modify their mode of production and thus reduce their cash expenses. If a farmer has high production costs, but has limited capital he/she can be caught in a cash-flow squeeze, especially during rice-producing months.

The LIRP technologies outlined in this kit are labor or knowledge-intensive rather than capitalintensive. increased labor requirements or the introduction of integrated management techniques are offered as alternatives to capital-poor farmers who may not have access to capital resources for investment in farm technologies (i.e., equipment, more land, hired labor, etc.). The costs of those capital resources, in an informal credit system, comprise a hidden cost of production and can reach 40-50% in four months. Any reduction in production costs can be assumed to save an additional 25-30%, at least, since many farmers use informal credit arrangements.

Since the cost of capital is high and may not be available to small farmers, labor must be substituted to maintain or increase production. However, the opportunity cost (the peso value of that labor if used in an alternative activity, i.e., day labor, driving a jeepney, etc.) of that labor may also be high, as a farmer may value time for leisure or family activities or may require time for other income-generating activities. If a farmer has an option to earn income from an off-farm source, even if the income earned is low, the farmer may opt to earn that income because it is IMMEDIATELY available. Thus, the opportunity cost to an LIRP technology may be high and this fact must be considered when making a decision to adopt (or not to adopt) a technology. For example, if a certain technology requires extra labor at a time when a farmer needs to earn disposable cash (i.e., to purchase food or medicine, pay school fess, etc.), then the technology will not be implemented by the farmer in that situation.

This paper will present actual production cost data from Cavite, Philippines, farmers. Using these data as an example, areas of rice production in which costs can be reduced or eliminated and in which potential yield increases lie will be identified. Pages are included which divide the LIRP technologies into groupings based on rice production activities. Therefore, if a farmer decides that he/she is spending too much on weed control, for example, and would like to reduce those costs, this quick reference can be used to identify those specific technologies which might be adopted in order to reduce weed control costs. Once a certain technology has been selected, a farmer can then use partial budgeting to determine if the introduction of that technology would be advisable, from a purely economical viewpoint. A partial budget example on the use of Azolla as a bio-fertilizer will be presented.

Using actual rice production costs of Philippine (Cavite Province) farmers, the following cost of production framework can be established:

Fixed Costs	Pesos (P)/Ha.
Irrigation	500.00/harvest
Land Rental	500.00/year

Variable Costs (per cropping)

Seed Bed Preparation	3 days @ P40/day		P120.00
Seed	125 kg.		625.00**
Land Preparation	3 days (with hand tractor @ P340/day	P1,020.00	1,300.00
	7 days (with carabao) @ P40/day	280.00
Transplanting	30 days @ P40/day		1,200.00**
Fertilizer Costs			570.00**
Fertilizer	2 1/2 bags @ P220/bag	500.00
Labor	1/2 day @ P40/day	20.00
Weed Control			812.00**
Labor for Manual Weed Control	14 day @ P40/day	560.00
Herbicides	1 liter	232.00
Labor for Spraying	1/2 day @ P40/day	20.00
Pest Control			260.00**
Pesticides	1 liter	240.00
Labor	1/2 day @ P40/day	20.00
Harvesting	(10% of harvest)		1,700.00
Threshing	(10% of harvest)		1,700.00

** Highest variable cost/ha.

Those areas with the highest production cost/ha. (based on the data presented) are seed, land preparation, transplanting, fertilizer, weed control and pest control. While the actual figures and relative rankings may vary (even widely) across regions or countries, these areas of production costs can be reduced or even eliminated using LIRP technologies. Some cost-reducing strategies for each of the six areas are presented here as alternatives to existing high-external input modes of production.

SEED:

Many farmers are currently using about 125 kg. of seeds per hectare, more than double the recommended seeding rate of 60-75 kg/ha. The expense for seed in our example is more than P600 for the 125 kg of seeds. Oftentimes, these seeds may be of poor quality, particularly with a low germination rate. Farmers can reduce their seed costs in two ways: cut in half the amount of the poor quality seed they use or buy (savings of more than P300); or only buy 60-75 kg good quality seed. With the use of a drum seeder, seed requirements for one hectare can be reduced to 50-100 kg.

LAND PREPARATION:

The land preparation costs of over P1,000 presented in our example can be reduced by a variety of strategies. Minimum tillage can potentially cut tillage costs by one-third. Zero-tillage would almost completely reduce tillage costs and offers the potential for producing an early crop. A zerotillage test with no fertilizer or pesticide yielded 2.2 T/ha.

TRANSPLANTING:

One of the most labor-intensive activities in rice production is transplanting. In areas where labor is costly or unavailable, farmers can reduce production costs by using a manually-operated rice transplanter. In our example, transplanting costs are equal to P1,200 per cropping or P2,400 for 2 croppings. Assuming 6 mandays of labor per cropping (6 mandays x 2 croppings x P40/md) and P900 depreciation, transplanting costs using a manually-operated transplanter can be reduced to P1,380, almost half the cost of traditional transplanting methods. In areas where labor is plentiful and/or inexpensive, the introduction and use of a transplanter could have negative social ramifications.

FERTILIZER:

Savings on fertilizer costs probably hold the most immediate and promising potential for reducing production costs. In our example, farmers have spent almost P600 for fertilizer and the cost of labor for application of that fertilizer. Two-thirds of fertilizer costs (almost P400 for our example) can be saved through the use of big-fertilizers. Sesbania rostrata as a green manure, for example, can easily supply more than 75% of the Nitrogen (N) needed by one rice crop. Many tests show that it can produce all of the necessary N.

Azolla can provide nearly all the Nitrogen needed for a rice crop when multiplied and complemented with enough phosphorous fertilizer. Azospirilla has demonstrated fertilizer savings of one-third. Fertilizer costs can easily be reduced (by 20% or more) without compromising yields by purchasing less fertilizer, but managing it more efficiently. Integrating legumes into the farm system can reduce fertilizer costs by as much as 50%, as well as providing food, fodder and/or fuel.

The LIRP technologies offer a variety of alternatives to reduce the amount or entirely forego the use of petroleum-based chemical fertilizers.

WEED CONTROL:

Over P800 was spent by the farmers in our example to control weeds in the rice paddy. Most of this cost accounted for labor (almost P600), but over P200 was spent in the purchase of herbicides. By using a rotary weeder, all cash outlays for herbicide can be saved, although the use

of labor will increase. The weeder will also aid in building soil fertility by incorporating weeds (and azolla, if used) into the soil to decompose and provide organic matter. However, the non-use of herbicides will allow the return of aquatic life such as frogs, fish, etc. The artificial culturing of fish in the rice paddy also becomes possible.

PEST CONTROL:

Pest control costs can be cut in half simply by using the sequential sampling method of pest control. For the farmers in our example, that could mean a savings of almost P150. Botanical pesticides, biological control techniques and soil amendments can almost eliminate the need for costly chemical pesticides. Selecting the proper chemicals, using them at the minimum required rate and practicing need-based rather than calendar-based spraying will also reduce pest control costs.

POTENTIAL YIELD INCREASES:

The potential exists for increased yields using the interventions described above not only with lowland rice but also with upland crops following rice. The increase in organic matter plus improved management practices can double yields over the average (300 kg/ha of mung bean, for example, increased to 600 kg/ha) with minimal cost.

Additional components of a rice-based farming system also hold potential for increasing income. Integrating animals such as fish, duck and milk/draft animals into rice-based systems offers the opportunity for a more stable income as well as providing a food/income "cushion" in case of crop failure. Adding a vegetable component can help ease cash flow problems and improve family nutrition. Additional savings can be realized in the form of labor and/or time spent collecting fodder and fuelwood. With sample supplies available from under-utilized areas of the farm, the family will spend less time in search of those farm inputs. By eliminating the use of inorganic pesticides, free food for the family can be realized as natural populations of frogs, mudfish, catfish, etc. return to the rice paddies.

PARTIAL BUDGETING:

Partial budgeting is a simple, useful method used in estimating the returns received from introducing a new technology which affects only a part of the overall farm enterprise. The partial budget can show a farmer whether an increased cost (in capital or labor) will be offset by the value of the expected increase in yield (or production). A planned change should be implemented only if the value of the expected increase in yield (or production) is greater than the expected increase in costs.

For example, a farmer has looked at his cost of production structure and has determined that his fertilizer costs are too high. He has used the LIRP kit to identify the use of azolla as a fertilizer alternative and would now like to calculate the estimated change in his income due to the use of azolla as a big-fertilizer.

COLUMN I		COLUMN II
Added Costs		Added Returns
1. Multiplication Pond		1. Azolla as hog feed; savings in feed (kg)	P125
Land preparation (1/2 day)	P20
Fertilizer (2 1/2 kg)	5
Fertilizer application (1 /2 day)	20
Seeding azolla (1/2 day)	20
2. Incorporation
Land preparation and rotary weeding (5 days)	200
Sub-total	P265
Reduce Returns		Reduced Costs
1. Decreased yield		1. Fertilizer	P550
80 kg @ P3.50/kg	P280	2. Labor to fertilizer	20
		Sub-total	P570
TOTAL	P545	TOTAL	P695

Estimated change in income (if positive, a gain in income; if negative, a loss in income) = Column II Less Column I

P150 = P695 - P545

This example shows that while a farmer using azolla as a big-fertilizer would encounter added costs of P265 (almost entirely labor costs) and a decreased yield of 80 kg, the cost would be offset by additional savings in chemical fertilizer and hog feed. (It is also worth-mentioning that decreased yields as a result of using azolla will usually only be experienced in the first or second croppings. Then, yields will, in fact, surpass those from inorganic fertilizers.) Therefore, if this farmer is comfortable with increasing his labor input to the farm, his actual cash outlays can be reduced by over P400.

ALTERNATIVES FOR REDUCING PRODUCTION COSTS OR CAPITAL NEEDS

SEEDS
· Reducing Seed Needs
- Drum seeder/Direct seeding
- Dapog/Wet-Bed
- Straight row planting
- Regrowth (dapog)

· Producing Own Seeds/Selecting Varieties
- Traditional vs modern varieties
- Seed selection techniques
- Clonal propagation
· Improving Storage and Germinability
- Seed dormancy
- Seed storage

TRANSPLANTING
1. Manually-operated transplanter
2. Line markers/straight-row planting

WATER MANAGEMENT

· Conserving Water
- Water management for drought-prone areas
- Sorjan· Blue-green Algae
- Increase organic matter with green manures
- Water impounding
· Obtaining Better Production from Available Water
- Integrated cropping systems
- Rice-fish culture
- Crop rotations
- Weed control

WEED CONTROL

· Cultural Management Practices
- Crop rotation/intercroppig/relay cropping
- Increasing organic matter
- Water management
- Mulching
- Thorough land preparation
- Row spacing
· Low-Cost Weeding "Tools"
- Rotary weeder
- Straight row planting
- Azolla
- Ducks

LAND PREPARATION

1. Using carabao for draft
2. Straight-row planting
3. Sesbania slicer for weedy areas
4. Reducing land preparation time by keeping land covered with "plants" not "weeds" minimum tillage
zero tillage
5. Rice straw utilization
6 Ratooning

FERTILIZER

· Green Manures and Green Manure Utilization
- Azolla
- Indigofera
- Crotalaria
- Sesbania aculeata or other locally available legumes
- Sesbania rostrata
- Leucaena leucocephala
· Nitrogen Fertilizer Management
· Animal Manures
· Farm Wastes
- Rice straw
- Rice hull
- Composts
· Azospirillum
· Intercropping/Relay Cropping/Crop Rotation
· Nutrient Cycling
· Off-Season Planting Legumes (mung bean cowpea soybeans)

PEST CONTROL

· Cultural Management Practices
- Synchronized planting
- Crop rotation/intercropping/relay cropping
- Sanitation
- Fertilizer management
- Water management
- Plant spacing
- Botanical control
- Low-cost control of Golden Snail
- Planting of resistant varieties
· Major Insect Pests and Their Economic Threshold
- Beneficial insects
- Safe usage of pesticides (need base spraying affected areas only)
- Spot treatment (spraying)

Cost-benefit analysis for low-input rice production (LIRP) technology

Cost-benefit analysis is an important and essential tool in measuring the net effect of a certain technology. Farmers will adopt a technology only when the benefits derived from it will compensate for their labor and other costs. However, environmental and social costs and benefits must also be considered.

Cost-benefit analysis

A guide for technicians, farmers and other agriculture enthusiasts to determine the costs as well as the benefits of components that are included in the technology is presented here.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS:

A. COSTS

The costs of the LIRP will perhaps involve slightly decreased rice harvests at least in the beginning and during the transition period to a less chemical-dependent farming system. Labor demand at harvest may also decline slightly .

Another cost will be an increase in labor requirements in crop establishment and maintenance. This can be seen as both a cost (less leisure or alternative production or more work days for the farmer/farm family) and as a benefit (increases in demand for agricultural labor to benefit landless families in the area).

B. BENEFITS

The benefits we foresee include economic, environmental and social aspects. The economic benefits are most obvious.

1. Economic benefits

· Increased net incomes to farmers through reduced cost of production, even in the face of possible slight decreases in crop yield.

· In the long run, improved soil condition and farming practices should lead to increased gross harvests.

· Maximum utilization of scarce resources through improved farming practices. Use of credit, capital, fertilizers (both organic and inorganic), labor, herbicides and pesticides as needed will be maximized.

· Savings in expenditures for family health maintenance and improvement due to reduced potential pollution and improved incomes.

· The development of linkages for small equipment repair, production of non-chemical inputs within the community, encouraging local resource use.

2. Environmental Benefits

· Reduction of pollution of streams, ground water and soils through minimal use of petroleum-based chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.

· Improvement in soil conditions due to use of green manure, crops which improve soil consistency and minimization of soil damage due to rice monocropping.

· Improvement in the health and nutrition of farm families due to declines in potential chemical poisoning hazards, increases in healthy farm produce and increases in net income.

· Presentation and reintroduction of environmentally important indigenous seed varieties of rice, as well as other crops and livestock grown as a part of an integrated farming system.

· Optional use of scarce water resources.

3. Social Benefits

· Perpetuation of traditional beneficial farming tradition encouraging the stewardship of the land among farm family members.

· Encouragement of family participation in farming activities leading to closer family ties and relationships within the family unit and across generations -- preserving advantages of extended family relationships.

· Encouragement of bayanihan (mutual help/sharing) within the community.

· Greater community self-reliance and less dependency on outsiders.

· Greater control over own resources can stimulate greater political awareness and power resulting from improved economic condition and revival of other community organizations (i.e., marketing cooperative) due to new organizational relationships.

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS:

A. METHODOLOGY

1. Production yield

· Gross production

- Gross yield -- Total harvest or produce in terms of weight or its equivalent
- Gross income -- Cash value of the harvest
- Land area cultivated.

· Production share (For those areas in which harvesting and threshing costs are paid as a share of total production.)

- Harvester's share
- Thresher's share -- Thresher share as payment for services.

· Farmer's share of production

- Difference between gross income (yield) and production share [gross income (yield) less production share].

2. Farm expenses

· Farm inputs

- List all inputs that have been used:

-- crop production (seed, fertilizer, pesticide, equipment, etc.)
-- livestock (stock, feed, medicine, equipment, etc.)

- All farm inputs should be specified and quantified (actual purchase cost).

· Labor expenses

- List all activities conducted during the production phases of rice, fish, vegetables, green manures, livestock, fodder, etc.

- Labor should be quantified (days or hours) and costed (actual expense).

· Other expenses

- List all other incurred expenses not grouped under farm inputs or labor expenses (e.g., rentals, transportation, storage, irrigation fees, permits, etc.).

· Total farm expenses (farm inputs plus labor expenses plus other expenses).

3. Net farm income

· Difference between farmer share of production (gross income less production share) and total farm expenses (farm inputs plus labor expenses plus other expenses).

B. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

· Consolidated data should be presented in tabular form (except for technology profile which should be presented in a separate sheet).

· Two types of analyses should be executed:

a. Financial analysis (see sample format): cost benefit analysis

b. Immediate impact analysis: effect of the technology in terms of social and environmental benefits.

· Further analysis of economic data can be conducted through the use of simple formulas to calculate farm returns using the LIRP technology. Listed below are three basic formulas which show farm returns to specific farm resources (materials and labor).

· Returns to labor can show a per hour (or per day) value of labor inputs; in other words how much return is received for every unit of labor invested.

Returns to labor = (gross production (income) - farm inputs and other expenses) / labor expenses

· Returns to farm family labor can show the amount of return received for every unit of family labor invested. This calculation can be computed only when the amount and cost of family and off-farm labor is differentiated.

Returns to family labor (hours or days) = (gross production - farm inputs and expenses - cost of hired labor) / amount of family labor (hours or days)

· Returns to farm resources can show the amount of return received for the amount of on-farm resources invested. This calculation can help a farmer to place special emphasis on the value of on-farm resources used within the system.

Returns to farm =gross production (income) -
Resources /ha expenses of non-farm resources

SAMPLE FORMAT

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
(Technology Title)

PRODUCTION DATA	QUANTIFY	AMOUNT
1. Production Yield
A. Gross Production
1. Gross Yield
2. Gross Income
3. Land Area Cultivated
B. Production Share
1. Harvester's Share
2. Thresher's Share
C. Farmer Share of Production
II. Farm Expenses
A. Farm Inputs
1. Seed/Seedlings
2. Fertilizer
· Inorganic (specify)
· Organic (specify)
3. Pesticides
· Inorganic Pesticide (specify)
· Organic Pesticide (specify)
4. Other Farm Inputs (specify)
B. Labor Expenses
1. Land Preparation
· Plowing
· Harrowing
· Levelling
2. Seed bed/box preparation
3. Seed drying, soaking and incubation
4. Seed broadcasting/direct seeding
5. Pulling of seedlings
6. Transplanting
7. Spreading of green manure
8. Fertilizer application
- top dressing
- side dressing
- basal
9. Pesticide application
10. Weed control
11. Harvesting
12. Threshing
13. Others (specify)
C. Other Expenses
1. Transportation
2. Hauling
3. Irrigation fees
4. Land rental
5. Storage costs
6. Others (specify)
D. Total Farm Expenses
III. Net Farm Income

Simple record-keeping for LIRP

Keeping accurate farm records allows a farmer to monitor expenses, inputs and labor which are invested into the farm and the production, yield and income generated from that investment. The importance of keeping records is emphasized by the need for farmers to have accurate information about cash expenses and incomes channeled through the farm.

Simple record-keeping for LIRP

Farmers have traditionally kept written farm records by recording events, activities, income and expenses on large wall calendars. Also, future farm activities i.e., harvesting, fertilizer applications, etc.. have been noted by farmers using this method.

Writing

Building on this traditional practice, a simple record book/ calendar can be designed which will allow farmers to more systematically record fundamental farm information, thus aiding them in decision-making. Two sample formats are presented here.

The inclusion of important astronomical events, i.e., lunar phases, solstices, or equinoxes in the calendar can facilitate making farming decisions for those farmers who use those events as guides. By using one of these sample formats, a farmer or group of farmers can modify the design in order to specifically tailor the components/information to be recorded to their specific production system.

A checklist of LIRP activities to be monitored/recorded in a record-book may include the following:

· Azolla multiplication
· land preparation (plowing, harrowing, levelling, plot preparation)
· seedbed preparation
· use of compost
· transplanting seedlings
· direct seeding
· straight row planting
· incorporation of green manures/animal manures/straw
· fertilizer application
· botanical/chemical pesticide application
· weed control practices
· vegetable production (bed preparation, planting, maintenance, weeds, pests, harvesting)
· fish culture practices (rice-fish-clams, rice-duck-fish, rice- pig-fish)
· Iivestock/animal production
· harvesting/threshing/storage

Rice production using LIRP technologies will bring about two major changes in the farming system -- increased savings to the household (through on-farm production of household consumption items and through decreased cash outlays for production costs) and increased demand for farm labor (through the use of labor-intensive technologies). Therefore, to accurately assess the impact of LIRP technologies, a farmer should take extra effort to record the variety of farm savings as well as the amount of increased labor requirements.

While at times difficult to quantify or measure, to the extent possible, materials/resources generated on and derived from the farm, the farm should be assigned a certain value and recorded. For example, posts produced from trees on the farm, fertilizer equivalents from green and animal manures, the amount of fish consumed from a fish pond, or the value of botanical pesticides used in place of chemical-based pesticides should all, be recorded as income to the farm, even though they do not actually generate cash.

To compute monthly returns to the farm, total expenses should be subtracted from gross income (including valuation of the resources saved).

Sample format of simple record book

Sample format of simple record book

Workshop to develop the low-external input rice production technology information kit

The Low-External Input Rice Production (LIRP) Technology Information, Kit is the result of an inter-agency collaboration made possible through the use of an innovative workshop process developed by the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR). During a two-week workshop conducted on July 15-30, 1990, IIRR brought together at the Silang, Cavite headquarters, 44 individuals from 10 organizations. Organizations represented included government agencies and institutions, such as the University of the Philippines at Los Ba(UPLB), the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) and the Department of Agriculture (DA); non-governmental organizations, such as AGTALON, the Quirino Livelihood Center, the Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement (PRRM) and IIRR; and research institutions, such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Cornell University and the University of California at Davis. Participants represented a variety of disciplines, including researchers, agricultural field technicians, rural development managers, farmers, artists, editors and graphics layout persons. While participation involved a variety of organizations and individuals, the logistical arrangements and workshop management was handled by IIRR. The Rockefeller Brothers' Fund (RBF) and the German Agro-Action provided funding support to IIRR for the field experiences which were presented in the kit, while RBF provided financial support for the workshop proper.

This technology kit attempts to accomplish the primary objective of providing and presenting technological options for rice production systems. The technologies presented are proven technologies based on a variety of sources including institutional research, farmer-level field experiences and/or traditional knowledge practices and systems. The kit is comprised primarily of single-page concept sheets which present individual topics. These sheets are designed to stand on their own, i.e., to be reproduced and distributed in a training session; or can be used as a technical resource package to farmers, technicians or researchers. A systematic effort has been exerted to use a science-simplification approach which allows for assessing technical information and repackaging it in a user-friendly and non-threatening format.

The workshop process involves a number of steps and the participation of several people from diverse backgrounds and disciplines. This process allows for participation of several people for review and assessment of the materials to be included, while allowing for a rapid compilation and production of the materials.

First, relevant topic areas are identified; resource persons who would participate in the workshop are identified; and, specific topics are then matched to the resource persons. Prior to the workshop, they are asked to prepare an initial working draft (two to four pages maximum) of their topic. The draft should include graphics and text and should be written to and for farmers or technicians, not researchers. Care should be taken to ensure that resource persons understand that a formal "scientific paper" is not being presented, but rather a "science-simpilfied" paper.

During the workshop, all invited resource technical persons, as well as editors, artists and layout technicians, attend the presentation sessions. The text and graphics are presented (using overhead projection) to the group. Then, all participants critique, provide input and conduct a peer review of the presentation. Suggestions, changes and revisions are noted and the materials are revised according to the comments in order to incorporate the changes. This process involves the

lay-out specialists, the editors, the artists and, of course, the resource person. The revised draft is again shared with the larger group and approved for final publication. Camera-ready materials are then produced, using desk-top publishing capabilities.

The LIRP Technology Kit was the first kit produced by IIRR involving the heavy use of desk-top publishing capabilities. High-quality, camera-ready materials were produced by IIRR staff in Silang; thus improving the quality of the materials while reducing the printing and production costs normally incurred in materials production.

Once again, the technology kit workshop has enabled IIRR and other agencies to produce a relevant field technology kit which is available for wider sharing to farmers, planners and technicians. While this process can be costly and time-consuming, the workshop method has allowed for cost and time reduction without sacrificing quality.

Rice production situationer in the Philippines

INTRODUCTION

Rice is one of the most important food crops of the world. It is the life blood of more than 90 percent of the people living in Asia who are dependent on rice as a staple food item. It accounts for over 70 percent of the daily calorie intake in countries such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar (table 1).

TABLE 1. THE TOP TEN RICE PRODUCERS.

COUNTRY	RlCE OUTPUTa ('000 T)	POPULATIONb (MILLION)	YlELDb (T/HA)	RICE IN TOTAL CALORIE SUPPLY %c
China	174704	1104	5.3	38
India	92422	835	2.3	31
Indonesia	40525	185	4.1	59
Bangladesh	22710	115	2.2	70
Thailand	19241	56	2.0	55
Vietnam	15435	67	2.7	69
Myanrnar (Burma)	13983	41	3.0	74
Japan	13421	123	6.1	26
Brazil	10868	147	1.9	15
Philippines	8919	65	2.7	41

a 1986-88.
b 1989.
c 1985.

Source: IRRI Rice Facts, 1989.

Rice is planted on about 145 million hectares - 11 percent of the world's cultivated land. Wheat covers a slightly larger land area, but a sizable proportion of the wheat crop is fed to animals. Rice is the only major cereal crop that is consumed almost exclusively by humans.

By the year 2000, the world will need more than 600 million tons of rough rice in order to keep pace with the current population growth rates. (Table 2)

TABLE 2. PROTRACTED INCREASES IN POPULATION AND

NECESSARY RICE PRODUCTION IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1985-2020.

COUNTRY	POPULATION (MILLION)				RICE REQUIREMENT ('000T)
	1985	1989	2000	2020	1985	1989	2000	2020
Bangladesh	101	115	153	230	20300	23294	32183	51238
China	1060	1104	1292	1523	157127	164672	195807	237794
indict	759	835	1043	1375	74982	84480	112590	167157
Philippines	54	65	86	131	7673	9330	13013	22069
Vietnam	60	67	86	121	13656	15545	20993	32271
WORLD	4837	5234	6323	8330	420000	455169	564012	781354

Source: IRRI Rice Facts, 1989.

Southeast Asian countries, like the Philippines, will have to intensify rice production within the next 20 years to keep up with rapidly growing populations. By the year 2000, more than 86 million Filipino will have to be fed (3 percent yearly increase) and the country must be able to produce more than 13 millions tons of rice.

The Philippine average rice yield per hectare for the past five years (1985-1989) was 2.7 tons. From 1985 to 1987 the area planted to rice was about 3.4 million hectares (43 percent irrigated lowland, 45 percent rainfed and 12 percent upland area respectively). Eighty-seven percent of this area was planted with modern rice varieties. Meanwhile, expansion of riceland is not possible, ail land suited for rice is already being cultivated; and, urban expansion is steadily forcing more land out of production.

TRENDS IN RICE PRODUCTION IN THE PHILIPPINES.

Three distinct phases characterize the trends in the Philippine rice production, over the postwar period (Fig. 1). Since the 1950s, self-sufficiency in rice has always been a continuous national program. Rice production increased annually at 2.2 percent, a rate below that of population growth. Between 1965 and 1980, after the introduction of the new seed-fertilizer technology, the annual growth rate doubled to 4.5 percent. This growth was achieved primarily through greater productivity rather than through area expansion. With this growth performance, the country turned from being a net importer of 5 to 10 percent of its annual rice requirements, to being marginal rice exporter by the late 1970's.

Table 3 shows the yield increases on paddy production, harvest, areas and yields by crop type, for crop years 1961-1980. The substantial gains in production from 1974-1979 (Masagana 99 years) and analysis of average annual growth rates in production, yields and hectarage are summarized in Table 4.

Figure 1. Trends in rice production and apparent consumption (production + imports - exports) in the Philippines, 1960-1984.

Table 3. Paddy production, area harvested and yield, 1961-1980.

TABLE 4. GROWTH RATES OF PADDY PRODUCTION, YIELDS, AND HARVEST AREAS, 1960-1979.

	% GROWTH RATE PER ANNUM
	1960-66	1967-73	197479
PRODUCTION
1. Total	1.5	1.6	8.8
2. Irrigated	2.8	4.9	9.9
3. Rainfed Lowland	2.7	(0.1)	8.0
4. Upland	(4.2)	(2 7)	5.9
YIELDS
1. All crop type	2.5	1.5	6.8
2. Irrigated	3.9	(0 9)	6.5
3. Rainfed Lowland	2.0	0.7	6.3
4. Upland	(1.3)	2.3	6.2
HARVEST AREAS
1. Total	0.9	0.1	1.9
2. Irrigated	(0.8)	6.4	3.3
3. Rainfed Lowland	0.7	(0.7)	1.7
4. Upland	(3.3)	(3.7)	2.8

Source: Bureau of Agricultural Economics.

Since 1974, rice production increased by 63 percent, with an average growth rate of 8.8 percent - a record accomplishment compared with 1.6 percent annual growth in total production from 1967-1973. The disparity is due primarily to the 28 typhoons that occurred within a period of four months in 1971, the disease infestation in 1972 and floods that reduced the production for the year by 13 percent.

Since 1980, rice production has grown at the negligible rate of 0.1 percent leading to rice imports in 1984 and 1985 (Fig. 1). Strong typhoons damaged the 1980 crop in Central Luzon and Cagayan. The sharp reduction in 1982-1983 rice production was due to severe drought from November 1982 to June 1983, particularly in the Visayas and Mindanao. Drought also affected the 1983-1984 crop as planting in the 1983 wet season was delayed and the low water levels in many Luzons reservoirs limited supply of water during the dry season of 1984.

SOURCE OF YIELD GROWTH

Among the factors accounting for past yield growth were: adoption of modern varieties, increased use of fertilizer and expansion of irrigation. Within five years of the introduction of modern varieties in 1966, 50 percent of the rice was already planted to modern varieties. Adoption continued to increase in the subsequent period.

Irrigated area expanded from 35 to 47 percent from 1965 to 1980. Growth in irrigation investments was much more rapid because a significant share of this was for rehabilitation to increase quality of irrigation.

Fertilizer per hectare used in rice increased from about 10 kgs. of NPK per hectare in 1965 to almost 40 kgs. by the early 1980s. Fertilizer use rose steeply as modern rice varieties were rapidly adopted and irrigated area expanded.

Despite the unfavorable weather and problems with irrigation quality from 1980 to 1984, average yields continue to increase at a high rate (Table 5). The high growth rate in upland yields in the 1980-1984 may not represent a true picture since the substantial increase occurred only in one year, 1984. It is in the rainfed areas where yield performance appears to have steadily improved as growth in yields rose to 4.5 percent. The yields of rainfed rice in 1984 are nearly 70 percent higher than those in the late 1960s when the size of rainfed crop area was about the same.

TABLE 5. GROWTH RATES OF PADDY PRODUCTION, AREA AND YIELD IN IRRIGATED, RAINFED AND UPLAND AREAS IN THE PHLIPPINES, 1955-1984..

	OUTPUT	AREA	YIELD
Irrigated
1955* - 65*	5.4	5.3	0.1
1965* - 80*	7.0	3.5	3 5
1980/84	2.2	1.0	1.2
Rainfed
1955* - 65*	0.8	1.0	-0.2
1965* - 80*	2.9	0.3	2.6
1980/84	-1.4	-5.9	4.5
Upland
1955* - 65*	-1.0	-1.6	0.6
1965* - 80*	-1.8	-3.8	2.0
1980/84	-10.0	-13.0	3.0

* Three-year average centered at year shown.

Source of basic data: Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Philippines.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE TO PRODUCTION INSTABILITY

The Agricultural Credit Program

The extension of agricultural credit to farm produce has been a policy instrument used to stimulate growth of rice farm incomes. Granting farmers access to institutional sources of credit at liberal terms promotes adoption of innovative practices and increases farm productivity and income.

Significant to reach Philippine farm producers with institutional credit commenced in 1952. Due to a threatening political situation in Central Luzon, the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing Administration (ACCFA) was established under Republic Act (RA) 821 to extend unsecured production loans to rice farmers. Low repayment of loans threatened the existence of the institution. In 1962, it was reorganized into the Agricultural Credit Administration (ACA), to serve the credit needs of land reform beneficiaries. Also in 1952, RA 720 was passed in response to the needs of small farmers.

The Supervised Credit Approach

The approach widely used to reach rice farmers has been institutional credit. The scheme provides production loans according to a farm plan and budget and technical guidance and supervision of the borrowers by the production technicians.

The experience gained in this approach marked the beginning of wide adoption of the supervised credit in the stimulating agricultural development, including the national drive for rice self-sufficiency represented in the Masagana 99 program.

The Masagana 99 Program

In 1973, the Masagana 99 was launched to increase rice farm productivity and income. It was a government-supported rice production program involving a package of technology, supervised credit, seed productivity and distribution, fertilizer allocation and distribution system, intensified extension services, intensified pest and disease control campaign and massive information and educational campaign.

Rice farm production increased with the program. In the Masagana 99 years (1974-1979), rice production grew at the rate of 8.8 percent per annum against the traditional growth rates of 1.5 percent 1.6 percent from 1960-73. The country achieved self-suffiency in rice during the program years. In addition, the country reversed its position in the rice market from a traditional importer to an exporter four years after the inception of the program. The country exported rice starting in 1977 and reached an export level of 190,000 metric tons in 1979.

In the 1980's, the world rice market and domestic economic conditions were entirely different. There was a minor rice production shorfall in 1980. Total rice consumption remained below total production and average per capita availability was maintained without importing. To help farmers affected by the unfavorable weather condition, the National Food Authority distributed rice on credit by drawing on the large stocks accumulated through the late 1970s. This approach prevented rice prices from rising and prevented farmers from increasing production.

In 1982-1983, a more serious production shortfall occurred. Government stocks were already at a low level. More limiting factors were the serious balance of payments, foreign debt, inflation and public deficit problems confronting the nation. The country imported rice to maintain per-capita availability to consumers. Foreign exchange constraints reduced and delayed fertilizer imports. Expansion of irrigations and other farm support were affected. The prices of fertilizer, labor, agricultural chemicals and other farm inputs were much less favorable in 1980-1984 compared to the period 1970-1979.

An intensified Rice Production Program (RPEP) was launched in 1984 followed by the Rice Action Program (RAP) to provide cheap credit but disbursed only 15 percent in real terms of what was disbursed at the peak of the Masagana 99 program in 1974. These factors have limited profitability of rice farming and prolonged the period of recovery from the 1980's weather problems compared to the 1973-1974 period.

TRENDS IN RICE PRODUCTION IN THE FUTURE

Clearly, there is a need to intensify rice production in existing cultivable lands. Crop area in rice continues to decline and is currently equal to the rice crop area in the early 1960s when population was only 60 percent of current levels. The main concern over the next two decades will be how to grow more rice on less land. The productivity of existing rice land must be increased but, simultaneously, its fertility must be sustained and the environment protected.

REFERENCES

David, C. 1985. Why the Philippines Imported Rice in Recent Years. IRRI, Agri. Eco. Dept., Los Ba Laguna, Philippines.

Hargrove, T. 1990. A Grass called Rice. IRRI, Los Ba Laguna, Philippines.

IRRI, 1989. IRRI Rice Facts. IRRI, Los Ba Laguna, Philippines.

UPLB, 1983. Rice Production Manual. Los Ba Laguna, Philippines.

Low-external Input Rice Production - Chapter 7 - Integrated Systems (Rice-Fish-Livestock-Trees)

Rice-clam culture

Clams grow naturally in many rice paddies and rural people have traditionally harvested them. This was true until chemical use in rice paddies resulted in the elimination of these clams in many areas. Intentional culturing of clams simply adds one extra step to the traditional clam harvesting -the seeding of clams.

From work with farmers in Quirino province, it was found that:

· Clam culture in rice serves as a buffer against unforeseen crop losses due to flooding or diseases like tungro.

· Clam production serves as a source of additional income (in 1 hectare paddy the average yield was 226 kg marketable clams valued at P1,800/ha.)

· In addition to extra income, the clams serve as a source of protein and minerals for the farmer's family.

PROCEDURE:

1. 20-25 days after planting, increase the irrigation water in the paddies to the maximum tolerable depth proportionate to the rice plant (approximately 5 cm depth). If the crop needs weeding, the rotary weeder can be used before irrigation.

Increase the irrigation water in the paddies

2. Let the water stand for 2 days to soften the soil and to neutralize sold toxicity or pesticide residues.

Let the water stand for 2 days

3. On the third day, drain the water and replace it with fresh irrigation water to the depth mentioned above.

Drain the water and replace it with fresh irrigation water

4. Evenly broadcast baby clams along the rice furrows. Seeding should be done in every other furrow.

Evenly broadcast baby

5. Harvest the clams as soon as they reach the desired marketable size (size of the new P50 coin) or just before harvesting the rice.

Harvest the clams

Note:

· Avoid using chemical insecticides; as a substitute, use botanicals.

· Don't introduce carp into the paddies seeded with clams. Carp eat clams.

· Faster growth of clams is attained when fields are fertilized with organic materials.

· Medium- to long-maturing rice varieties should be used in clam-rice culture. This allows the clams to stay longer in the paddy field.

· Rice-clam system is best suited to areas where there is a continuous supply of water.

Rice-fish culture

Before the advent of modern farming practices, freshwater fish, such as catfish (Clarias sp.) and mudfish (Channa striate) grew abundantly in rice field paddies in Asia. These fish occurred naturally without being cultured by farmers. The indiscriminate use of chemicals for protection from pests in rice has largely reduced their populations.

In rice-fish culture, it is possible to produce freshwater fish like nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) with catfish and mudfish along with a high rice yield.

Rice-fish culture

1. TRENCH CONSTRUCTION

· Begin construction before the onset of the rainy season.
· For tilapia, mudfish and catfish, the trench is 1 1/2-2 m wide and 1 m deep or 10% of the rice field area.

Notes on Rice-Fish Trenches:

1. Raise peripheral dikes of the rice-fish field.
2. Locate the trench at the lower end of the field.
3. The bamboo outlet and inlet pipes should be at least 3 inches in diameter.

· The water that falls from the inlet pipes provides aeration to the trench.
· The outlet pipes are necessary for drainage to maintain the desired water level in the rice field.

4. Construct a small trench 30 cm wide and 30 cm deep. This will guide the fish to go to the trench.
5. For additional sources of income -- plant gabi, string beans and other suitable vegetables on the dikes. However, to minimize seepage, do not plant gabi where the pipes are installed.

2. FERTILIZATION OF THE TRENCH

· When there is enough water in the trench (from initial rains or from irrigation canal), apply any of the following organic fertilizers:

Chicken/Hog manure	Carabao/Cow manure
0.3 kg/sq.m fresh	0.5 kg/sq.m fresh
0.5 kg/sq.m dried	1.0 kg/sq.m dried

· Fertilize once a month or when the color of the water is no longer greenish. Greenish water is indicative that there is sufficient natural food (plankton) in the trench.

· Method of application

- Broadcast the manure after the construction of the trench (basal application).

- Place the manure in a sack. Submerge it in the trench 15-20 cm below the water level.

- You may also dump the manure in one corner of the trench.

3. STOCKING

· Stock the trench with Tilapia fingerlings (3-5 9) 15 days after the application of manure at the following rate:

- 1 fingerling/sq.m - no supplemental feeding (10,000/ha)
- 2 fingerlings/sq.m - with supplemental feeding (20,000/ha)

· If polyculture is practiced, the stocking rate should be:

- Tilapia - 75%-85%
- Carp - 10%-15%
- Catfish/Mudfish - 5%-10%

4. LAND PREPARATION AND TRANSPLANTING

· During the onset of the rains, plow and harrow the land thoroughly. Transplant seedlings 1 day after the last harrowing.

· Maintain at least 1 inch water depth.

5. FERTILIZATION OF THE RICE FIELD

· Incorporate manure into the soil at the last harrowing.

- Chicken/Hog manure 2-3 kg./10M²
- Carabao/Cow manure 3-4kg./10M²

· At this point, also apply the recommended basal N for the rice crop.

6. OPENING THE DIKE

· One month after transplanting, make 3 openings in the dike to allow the fish from the trench to enter the rice field.

· Maintain the water level at 10-15 cm and increase it to 20-25 cm after the maximum tillering stage.

7. HARVESTING

· By the time the rice crop is ready for harvesting, so are some of the fish.

· Harvest only the big fish (50-60 9 or heavier). Extend the culture period of the smaller ones for the next rice cropping.

SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING (OPTIONAL)

a) Rice bran- 80%
Ipil-ipil- 20%

b) Rice bran - 65%
Ipil-ipil meal - 20%
Molasses/Golden
Snails (ground) - 15%

Supplemental feeding

Feeding Method

1. Add a little water to the feed ingredients and ball it.
2. Place the balled feeds in a feeding tray made of fish net.
3. Tie the feeding tray to a pole and submerge it in water (see illustration).

Rate and Frequency of Feeding

· Determine the consumption of the fish per feeding by actual observation. First month 1-2 handfuls for 100 fish per day. Adjust the amount accordingly.

· Feed twice a day, morning and afternoon if necessary.

Notes:

1. For a single crop of rice, extend the culture of the small fish after the harvest by utilizing the whole field if water is still available.

2. Establish a tilapia and carp hatchery pond (3 m x 5 m) in addition to the trench to maintain a breeding stock of quality fingerlings for future use.

3. Catfish and mudfish are migratory. To keep them in the rice paddy/trench, they should be provided with a continuous supply of feeds. Tilapia fingerlings serve as feeds for catfish and mudfish, as do slaughter house by-products (pieces of skin) and crushed golden snail. Plant kangkong or gabi (taro) around the trench. This may help to discourage the fish from leaving the trench.

Rice-pig-fish culture

The traditional Chinese farming practice of pig and fish raising within the rice field is now spreading throughout the Philippines and Southeast Asia in general. In addition to supplementing income and improving nutrition through pig and fish culture within the rice field, rice-pig-fish culture maximizes land use by integrating three farm enterprises.

Design 1. The pig pen is constructed on top of the dikes near the trench. The floor should be sloping towards the trench and preferably be made of a soil-cement mix or concrete. A pipe is necessary to convey the waste matter into the bench.

Design 2. The entire pig pen is over the trench. The floor is made of bamboo slats spaced just enough to allow manure to fall directly into the trench but not too wide for the feet of the pigs to be injured.

BASIC STEPS IN ESTABLISHING THE SYSTEM:

1. Trench construction

Establish the trench at the lower end of the rice field. The minimum trench area requirement should range from 70-80 sq.m/pig. The water depth is 60-100 cm. The rice field area is 500 sq.m. Inlet and outlet pipes should also be installed.

2. Location of the pig pen

The pig pen should be near or over the trench. Typically, the pig pen is 1 m x 1.5 m for each pig.

3. Stocking

Fish:

Stock the trench with fish when there is enough water from the irrigation canal or from other sources.

Stocking rate:

Monoculture: one (1) fish/m² (average weight 3-5g) or 10,000fingerlings/ha.

Polyculture:
Tilapia nilotica - 75-85% (average weight 3-5 9)
Common carp - 10-15% (average weight 3-59)
Catfish/mudfish - 5-10% (average weight 1-29)

Pig:

Stock weanling -- 8-10 kg. in the pig pen.

4. Dike construction

Construct the dikes after plowing the rice field. The size of the dikes is 1 m wide at the base and 40-50 cm at the top. The height of the dikes should be 75-80 cm. Install the inlet and outlet pipes.

5. Land preparation

Plow the rice growing area at the onset of the rainy season to provide ample time for the construction of dikes.

6. Fertilization of the rice field and transplanting

a. For the first rice crop in a 500 m² rice field apply the following inorganic fertilizer (depending on the fertility and kind of soil)

Urea --5-10 kg
14-14-14 -- 3- 5 kg

Reduce the rate of fertilizer application for the succeeding rice crop.

b. Allow some of the manure to flow to the rice field.
c. Transplant after thorough land preparation and fertilization.

7. Opening the dikes

a. One month after transplanting, make 3-4 openings in the dikes in the trench to allow the fish to move into the rice field and forage for feed.

b. Maintain the water level at 10-15 cm and increase it to 20-25 cm after the maximum tillering stage.

8. Harvesting

a. Fish

Harvest the bigger-sized fish after 120-150days by draining the trench. Extend the culture period of the small fish to the next rice crop.

b. Pig

Sell the pig after 4-5 months.

c. Scrape out the decomposed organic waste and use as fertilizer for the rice crop.

NOTE:

Establish a tilapia and common carp hatchery pond (3m x 5m) to maintain a breeding stock of quality fingerlings for future use.

Vegetable-duck-fish culture (Tinola garden)

Tinola garden, as the name implies, is a type of garden where major ingredients in the preparation of tinola (a kind of poultry or fish soup with vegetables) are found in a 200 sq.m area.

Vegetable-duck-fish culture

BASIC COMPONENTS:

a. Duck raising for meat and/or eggs
b. Mini-fishpond
c. Vegetable growing

This vegetable-duck-fish culture is actually a modification of the original mini-fishpond operation. This technology, however, optimizes land use by planting vegetables on the dikes, fence and the construction of trellis over the mini-pond. Depending on the preferences of the farmer, dikes could be planted with different vegetables and crops (e.g., leaf, fruit, root or legumes) and areas along the fence and trellis with any climbing vegetables.

ADVANTAGES:

Some of the advantages of this tinola garden are the following:

· increase in quantity and variety of food for home consumption
· ensures fresh supply of poultry meat and eggs, fish and vegetables

· practical for those farmers whose land area is less than 1.0 hectare and adopting the ricefish culture.

NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS:

A. Vegetables

· On the trellis and fence -- squash, patola and other climbing vegetables.

· After the construction of pond dikes, the trellis could be constructed and planting of varieties of crops could immediately follow.

B. Mini-fishpond

· The dikes should be at least 1 m high, 1/2 m wide on the top and 1 m wide at the base.

· Water inside the pond must not be more than 1/2 m (to minimize fish losses).

· Recommended fish for stocking is Tilapia (Tilapia nilotica) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) at the rate of 3 fingerlings/sq.m.

· Low-cost feeds may include rice bran, crushed snails and kitchen refuse.

Note: Refer to technology paper on Rice-Fish Culture for feeding and other management techniques.

C. Duck-Raising

Shed house (4 m x 1 m) made of low-cost and locally available materials (e.g., bamboo, ipilipil, madre de cacao, cogon, nipa, etc.) located in a 25 sq.m area in one section of the pond.

· Feeding troughs and waterers using old jeep or truck tires, clay pots or old cooking utensils.

· Stock: 8-12 heads (any species, depending on the farmer).

· Feeds may consist of rice bran, crushed banana trunk, crushed snails, kitchen refuse, kangkong, etc. Feeding is done twice a day.

Note: For more detailed information on duck raising, please see the technology paper on Backyard Duck Raising for Meat and Eggs.

Care and management of mini-ponds

The secret of success in growing fish in mini-ponds is proper care of the fish and management of the pond. Good pond management and care of the fish means faster growth and more fish for the family. The major points to remember are the following:

1. POND CONSTRUCTION

· Establish the mini-pond near a water source such as streams, springs, irrigation canals or manually operated pumps (pitcher pump), etc., which is free from flooding and with good drainage.

· The soil at the bottom and side of the minipond must be well packed to minimize seepage. If the soil is sandy or porous, line it with a mixture of carabao or cow dung, clay soil and cement.

· Plant grasses on the banks to prevent soil erosion. Grasses that grow fast and spread rapidly are ideal for this purpose.

· Put screens on the inlet and overflow pipes to prevent the entrance of predators and at the same- time to keep the fish from escaping.

Care and management of mini-ponds

2. WATER—QUALITY, DEPTH AND TEMPERATURE

· Water is of vital importance in raising fish. Always make sure that it is free from toxic substances, of the right temperature and the proper volume (depth). However, the warmwater fish do not require a constant supply of a large volume of fresh water. Most freshwater fish can be raised with water temperature ranging from 20°C - 40°C.

· The ideal water temperature ranges from 25°C - 30°C. In order to maintain the right temperature, plant leguminous trees like ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), katuray (Sesbania grandiflora), madre de cacao (Gliricidia septum) and Dapdap (Erythina) on two sides of the mini-pond, about 1.5 m - 2 m from the bank. Orient the planting of trees on the east-west direction to allow enough sunlight into the pond. The leaf litter also serves to improve aquatic life.

· Occasionally, the water in the pond becomes turbid and muddy. To check the turbidity of water apply lime at the rate of 1 tbsp/sq.m. Dissolve the lime water and sprinkle it over the pond.

· Maintain water depth at 1 m so that the sun's rays can penetrate the water and induce the growth of plankton (natural fish food). Production of plankton decreases as water depth increases. In shallow water (.5 m), the water temperature easily gets high during summer. High temperature retards fish growth.

· Avoid letting the water out from the pond to prevent the fertilizers and plankton from flowing out.

· Drain the pond once a year. Keep it dry for a period of 2-3 weeks to aerate the soil.

3. POND FERTILIZATION

Fertilize the pond

Any kind of animal manure can be used

· The production of algae and microorganisms in the mini-pond is the most important task for the low-cost production of fish. Fertilize the pond at least twice a month for the water to remain greenish. Green color indicates that the water has plenty of small plants and microorganisms which serve as nutritious food for the fish.

· Any kind of animal manure can be used. However, chicken manure makes a better fertilizer. Apply .5-1 kg chicken manure/m. The manure can be placed directly in one corner of the pond or put in a burlap sack and submerged 20 cm below the water surface. Never broadcast the manure on the surface as this, in turn, will reduce sunlight entry into the water, resulting in poor plankton growth.

· Dried leaves of leguminous trees can also be used to fertilize the pond. Put the leaves in porous bags and submerge in water 20 cm below the surface. One to two sacks of dried leaves can help fertilize the mini-pond. Dried rice straw can also be dumped directly in one corner of the pond. Occasional broadcasting of green leaves of leguminous trees (smallleaf varieties such as Calliandra, Leucaena, etc.) is also very helpful and promotes aquatic life.

· If a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizer is desired, 500 9 of organic fertilizer and 10 9 of inorganic fertilizer (preferably urea or 16-20-0)/m water can be applied to produce good results.

· On soils or water that are acidic, lime must be added. It can be broadcast on the bottom of the pond or put in a porous bag. Tie the bag to prevent it from submerging into the bottom of the pond. If lime is not available, it can be substituted by aged wood ash (not fresh ash or ash from paper).

4. FINGERLINGS

Stock only high-quality fingerlings. Secure your fingerlings from reliable hatcheries.

5. FEEDS AND FEEDING

· For faster growth, fish should be given supplemental feeds. A diet consisting of 20-30% ground ipil-ipil leaves or Azolla and 70-80% fine rice bran is recommended.

· When affordable, supplemental feeding of 100% fine rice bran is still the most economical (when natural food plankton in the mini-pond is abundant).

· Feed the fish twice a day, morning and afternoon.

· For a more efficient feeding, mash the feeds and place in a feeding tray made of fish net.

· The fish can also be fed with green leaves of kangkong, sweet potato, Azolla, kitchen leftovers, boiled sweet potato, cassava, gabi, crushed golden snails and white ants (termites).

· Surplus tilapia fingerlings (fresh) can be crushed and mixed with fine rice bran. This diet is very nutritious.

· Other cheap methods of feeding fish are:

- Hanging a lighted lamp over the center of the pond. At night, insects are attracted to the light and hover around it. The insects will fall into the pond where the fish can eat them.

- Feeding the fish with maggots (small worms). To produce maggots, hang pieces of meat or dead animals on a pole 2-3 ft above the water surface. Flies and other insects will lay their eggs on the meat or dead animals. After 2-3 days, maggots will come out and fall into the water.

6. CONTROL OF OVERPOPULATION

Overpopulation of fish is one of the problems in raising fish (tilapia) in mini-ponds. To obtain good yields of harvestable or marketable size of fish, population control is necessary. Any of the following methods may be used:

· Scooping the fry with a fine net early in the morning and late in the afternoon. The fries swim at the edges of the pond at this time of the day.

· Introducing predators into the pond such as mudfish (dalag) and catfish (hito) at 2% of the total stocking rate. To prevent predators from preying on the original stock, the size of the predators must be smaller than the original stock and should weigh less than one gram.

7. HARVESTING

· After 4-5 months, the bigger fish can already be harvested. Catch them with a hook and line using earthworms or golden snails as bait or use a sweep net.

· Harvest only enough fish for the family to consume.

· To ensure a continuous supply of fish for the family, replace the number of fish harvested immediately by collecting fingerlings from the breeding/hatchery pond.

Backyard poultry project using compost litter system

Backyard poultry project using compost litter system

With the high cost of producing imported breeds of birds for meat and eggs, the current trend for farm households is to revive the traditional family backyard poultry project using local and upgraded birds. These local breeds survive the adverse conditions found in the rural areas.

By using improved feeds and management practices, these local and upgraded birds can provide at least 130-200 eggs and extra poultry meat throughout the year for the family. These birds can be allowed to search for feed on the range or in confinement using a low-cost poultry compost litter system, practiced by some farmers in Cavite, Philippines. This system can sustain 6 hens and 1 rooster or 3 hens, 30 chicks and 1 rooster for at least 3 - 4 months. The compost litter is then removed and used as organic fertilizer and a new batch of farmyard manure is added. Production of a small flock in the backyard can help fill the family food requirements for eggs and meat, provide extra family income and utilize the manure as an excellent organic fertilizer.

BREEDS AND BREEDING:

The farm family should properly select an upgraded rooster (Cantonese, New Hampshire, Plymouth Rock breeds) and hens/layers.

Other poultry birds, like Muscovy duck. native or Pateros ducks, Peking duck, geese and pigeons are hardy and can also be raised under backyard conditions. They do not require elaborate housing and can subsist on inexpensive feeds.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS:

Construct the house using local materials to minimize expenses, (cogon/nipa for roof, bamboo or used fish nets for siding' end ipil-ipil/madre de cacao as posts). The house should be located in a dry, well-drained area. Perch racks, roosts, nests, feed hoppers and waterers made of low-cost materials should also be provided.

The house should not be less than 2.0 m in height with a floor area of 3 m x 3 m. The house should be fenced; or if the hens are raised with chicks, they can be raised in a separate open house.

Before constructing the house, dig a pit in the floor 1/2 m deep, extending the length of the house (3 m) and 2 m wide. Once the building is completed, the pit should be filled with fresh manure of cattle, carabao or goat. Keep the manure moist for one week (to encourage the growth of worms and maggots as feed for the chickens) and then place the upgraded/native birds in the poultry house. While scratching the ground, the birds will be eating as well as hastening the composting process.

FEEDS AND FEEDING:

The family should provide extra feed supplements, like kitchen refuse, fish entrails, corn/sorghum, ipil-ipil leaves and others. Clean, potable water should be always available.

Home Made Chicken Ration

· 4 parts yellow corn, broken rice (binlid) or sorghum. Boiled gabi, fresh ubi, camote or cassava (bitter type should be boiled) can also be substituted.

· 1.5 parts rice bran (darak). Dried azolla or filter cake (from sugar mills) can replace rice bran.

· 1 part dried fish meal or 2 parts fresh fish/golden snail

· 1.5 parts cope/oil meal

· 0.5 part ground sitao/mongo (mung)/patani (lima bean)/soybean/kadios (pigeon pea) seeds

· 0.5 part dried ipil-ipil leaves

· 1 tbsp salt

· 1 handful powdered oyster shell/agricultural lime

Note: Double the recommended amounts if ingredients are not in dry form.

Other Low-cost Poultry Feeds

Carbohydrate Sources	Protein Sources
- Bananas	- Azolla
- Gabi	- Earthworms
- Ubi	- Filter cake (dried and powdered)
- Cassava	- Kitchen leftovers
- Camote	- Mole crickets
- Spoiled papayas	- Sorghum
- Rice bran	- Fish fingerlings
	- Crushed golden snails
	- Termites
	- Tadpoles
	- Fly maggots

HEALTH MANAGEMENT:

Regular immunizations against Avian Pest, Fowl Pox and Fowl Cholera must be followed. A regular schedule of deworming, according to local conditions, must also be followed.

OTHER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES:

Other management practices like brooding, rearing the chicks, culling and selection and record-keeping should be practiced.

Backyard piggery project

Although demand for pork in many areas is high, the rising cost of production discourages many small farmers from attempting to raise swine on a small scale. The use of commercial feeds is one of the main reasons for high production costs. Purchased feeds can constitute 60-80% of total expenses. Once an animal is sold, the amount of return received, after paying the feed bill, is often too low to purchase another animal and sustain the cycle of production. Therefore, for farmers with little capital to invest, an alternative mode of production must be advocated. This alternative includes the utilization of low-cost materials and feeds available within the farm. Of particular importance is the potential to reduce feed costs.

BREEDS AND BREEDING:

Upgraded cross-breed animals are recommended.

Housing requirement

FEEDS AND FEEDING:

1. Low-cost Feeds

Commercial feeds, while complete and usually available, are costly, thus driving up the cost of production for a swine project. However, a variety of non-conventional or traditional foodstuffs can be utilized to provide low-cost feeds to swine.

Below is a list of common on-farm resources which can be used as carbohydrate and protein sources and several ration formulas (with Crude Protein percentage) using some of the following feed stuffs:

Carbohydrate Sources		Protein Sources (% Crude Protein)
Coconut oil meal (sepal)	3	Brewer's spent grain (15.4)	2
Rice middlings	1 or 4	Copra meal (19.42)	2
Rice bran	2	Cowpea (33.89)	4
Banana trunks	3	Fish meal (53.44)	2
Sweet potato (leaves, vine end tuber)	2	Jackbean (25.75)	4
Cassava ([eaves end tuber)	2	Pigeon pea (20.46)	4
Taro (leaves, stem and tuber)	1 or 2	Mung bean (22.66)	4
Kangkong	1	Peanut oil meal (43.65)	2
Ulasiman	2	African snail (45.91)	1
Banana (peers end rice fruit)	2	Soybean meal (soya) (43.70)	2
Banana (raw fruit)	1	Rice bean (tapilan) (17.42)	2
Papaya (green)	1	Velvet bean (24.02)	4
Papaya (ripe)	2	Hyacinth bean (3.6)	1
Muskmelon	2	Leucaena leaves (17.52)	2
Jackfruit	1
Pineapple	2
Elephant yam (pongapong)	1
Yam bean (singkamas)	2
Ubi peelings	1
Leafy vegetables	1 or 2
Water lily	1

1 -- Needs cooking.
2 -- Can be given fresh or as is.
3 -- Should be mixed with rice bran or commercial feeds.
4 -- Needs soaking.

LOW-COST SWINE RATIONS

Ration 1	Parts by Wt.
Rice bran	60 kg
Yellow corn	10
Coconut (bagasse)	10
Leucaena leaf meal	5
Rice middlings	5
	---------
	100 kg
Crude Protein	12.881%
Ration 2	Parts by Wt.
Rice bran	80 kg
Gabi tuber/Cassava	20
Japanese/Golden Snail	10
Ground yellow corn	10
Leucaena leaf meal	10
	---------
	100 kg
Crude Protein	14.91%
Ration 3	Parts by Wt.
Rice bran	80 kg
Leucaena leaf meal	15
Rice middlings	5
	-----------
	100 kg
Crude Protein	14.9175%
Ration 4	Parts by Wt.
Rice bran	60 kg
Swamp cabbage leaves	30
Yellow corn	5
Coconut bagasse	5
	---------
	100 kg
Crude Protein	9.965%
Ration 5	Parts by Wt.
Rice bran	60 kg
Banana trunks (chopped finely)	30
Leucaena leaf meal	10
	----------
	100 kg
Crude Protein	10.591%
Ration 6	Parts by Wt.
Dry camote	57 kg
Rice bran	30
Copra meal	4
Fish meal	5
Soybean oil meal	5
	----------
	100 kg
Crude Protein	10.6%
Ration 7	Parts by Wt.
Cassava or sweet potato	25 kg
Rice bran	50
Copra meal	25
	-----------
	1 00 kg
Crude Protein	11.45%

2. Proper Feeding

a. Leftover food scraps from the house should be cooked to kill germs and remove toxin present in the foodstuff.

b. Unconsumed feeds in the troughs should be discarded before giving new feed to the animals.

3. How to Prepare Feeds for Swine

a. Chop all ingredients into small pieces.

b. Boil hard ingredients first (i.e., pongapong, green papaya, water lily, etc.).

c. When soft, add other ingredients (i.e., kangkong, leftover food, etc.).

d. Cook until done.

e. Cool.

f. Add a pinch of salt before feeding to the animals. These cooked feeds should be mixed - with rice bran when fed to the animals.

4. Alternative Feeding Management for a Fattener

a. During the first 2 months, feed piglets with commercial feeds (if the necessary ingredients to make a homemade, nutritious feeds are not available) to promote and boost growth.

b. In the second month, gradually substitute commercial starter ration with grower ration and begin slowly incorporating cooked supplemental feeds into the diet.

c. In the third month, one quarter of the ration can be replaced with supplemental, low-cost feeds previously listed.

d. At the fattening stage (4-6 months), one-half or more of the ration can be supplemental, lowcost feeds.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT:

1. Animals should be purchased from a reliable source in order to insure their hearth. Newly acquired animals should be isolated and observed for at least 2 weeks to determine their health status before introducing them into the pen area with other animals.

2. A regular schedule of vaccination should be followed to protect animals against swine diseases common in the area (i.e., hog cholera, etc.).

3. Animals should be regularly dewormed as needed or as local conditions dictate.

4. Improved sanitation ensures improved animal health:

a. Maintain clean pens.

b. Animals should be regularly bathed, especially during hot weather.

c. Excreta should be properly disposed, preferably composted in a pit or pile.

Backyard duck raising for meat and eggs

Backyard duck raising for meat and eggs

WHY RAISE DUCKS?

Ducks are one of the most practical, versatile and useful waterfowls to raise. Duck raising offers several benefits:

· Ducks are efficient producers of animal protein.
· Ducks provide both eggs and meat, for consumption or for sale.
· Ducks require limited space, simple shelter and minimal care.
· Ducks are resistant to diseases and thrive in harsh conditions.
· Ducks control harmful insects, unwanted aquatic weeds and golden snails.
· Duck manure is an excellent organic fertilizer.

· Ducks eat aquatic plants, grasses, vegetable trimmings, golden snails, insects and farm byproducts. Thus, providing feed is not a problem.

WHAT BREED TO RAISE FOR MEAT AND EGGS:

The Muscovy is a multipurpose breed for meat and eggs. The most popular Muscovy ducks raised are the white and black types. They lay from 80-120 eggs/yr and produce an excellent quality meat.

The Khaki Campbell breed is more efficient for egg production as compared to other breeds. A single duck is capable of producing 250-350 eggs/yr.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS:

Since ducks are small, a simple shed with one open side can provide adequate shelter. A 1 1/2 m x 5 m x 1 m high shelter can accommodate 40-50 adult ducks. To prevent the ducks from destroying vegetables and other crops, they should be confined in a fenced structure made from locally available materials.

Farm litter (e.g., rice straw) should be placed in the shed for laying and brooding purposes.

STARTING A BACKYARD PROJECT:

A beginner can start with 7 ducks -- one male (drake) and 6 female (ducklets). It is preferable to acquire ducks that are from 1-2 years of age.

FEEDS AND FEEDING:

Muscovy ducks are voracious eaters and eat practically anything they are fed. For maximum growth, ducks should be fed with natural, local feeds such as empty grains (rice), rice and corn bran, ipil-ipil leaves, golden snails, duck weed, Azolla, banana trunks, worms, etc. They should be fed three times a day and provided with fresh water always. Used tires or old cookings utensils can be used for waterers and feeders. Twenty-five ducks can be raised in a 1-hectare farm using onfarm feeds without commercial feeds.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT:

To prevent a disease outbreak, animals should be regularly vaccinated against common diseases (e.g., Newcastle, Fowl Pox or Fowl Cholera). Deworming and other health care practices, such as proper sanitation, correct feeding and proper care and management, must be strictly implemented to ensure a disease-free flock. New birds introduced into a flock should be quarantined to ensure that they are disease-free. Sick birds should also be isolated from healthy stock during treatment.

OTHER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES:

Hatching

Ducks start to lay eggs after reaching 6 months of age. One medium-size duck is capable of hatching 12-15 eggs during the 30-33 day incubation period. Layers are usually productive from 1218 months. At the end of that production period, layers should be culled and eaten or sold.

The fertility of eggs can be determined using a simple technique known as candling. Eggs should be candled (on the 15th day of incubation) in a dark room using at candle, lamp or flashlight. Fertile eggs reveal a small dark spot with a network of blood vessels branching out from it or the eggs appear dark. Infertile eggs are clear with the yolk appearing as a floating shadow. Do not throw away infertile eggs; they are delicious as well as nutritious and can be eaten or processed into salted or hard-boiled eggs to be sold for extra income.

Duckling Rearing

Young ducklings must be kept warm and dry. It is best to keep them out of water until they are 2 weeks old. However, they must have a constant supply of fresh drinking water. The ducklings should be fed fine rice bran and boiled rice. Cracked corn or rice should be fed to them after they are several weeks old.

It is very important to protect the ducklings from predators such as cats. dogs; rodents, birds, etc. One method of protecting the ducklings is to confine the hen and her brood in a covered pen each night until the ducklings are 6-8 weeks old.

Marketing

Meat-type birds are ready to be slaughtered, dressed and marketed at 5-6 months of age.

DUCK MANAGEMENT WITHIN A RICE SYSTEM:

Two pen/shelter design options are presented here:

The duck pen and shelter is constructed over the irrigation canal The floor is made of bamboo slats spaced so as to allow the droppings to fall into the water below, but not to trap and injure the ducks' feet. The floor should slope slightly to allow the eggs to collect on one side of the pen, thus facilitating daily egg collection. This design allows the duck droppings to fall directly into the water and be carried to the rice paddies through the irrigation canal. One disadvantage to this design, however, is the possible danger of housing the ducks directly over the water during colder times of the year

The duck pen and shelter

The other design places the shelter near, but not over, the irrigation canal. Cover the floor with 4-6 inches of dry bedding material i.e., rice straw. Remove the old bedding materials weekly and place them in a compost pit for future incorporation into the rice paddies as fertilizer.

The is shelter near, but not over, the irrigation canal

Ducks should be given adequate time to forage for their food. The ducks should be released from their house in the morning after they have laid their eggs (about 7:00 a.m.). The most important consideration is that the ducks be released at the same time every morning. If they are released at different times every day, the change can upset them, causing them to stop laying eggs and even begin to molt. They should be herded back to the pen about 5:30 in the afternoon. Giving them some feeds regularly at this time also trains them to return to their pen.

Ducks should be released onto the ricefields only at certain times:

- During plowing and harrowing

- After the tillering stage, but not during the flowering and heading stage of the ricecrop

- After the rice has been harvested and threshed.

When it is not possible to release the ducks into the ricefield, they should be taken to an area where no crops are grown. If no such area is available, the ducks can be fed in confinement.

Backyard carabao raising for draft and milk

Backyard carabao raising for draft and milk

The carabao (swamp-type buffalo) is a prized symbol of a farmer's wealth and is an integral component of Philippine agriculture. Millions of crop farmers rely on this animal as the main source of draft power for almost all farming operations despite the introduction of small power tillers. The carabao provides animal protein in the form of meat and milk; as well as hides and horns (which have many economic uses) and manure, a potential organic fertilizer for the farm.

Carabaos are also excellent potential sources of milk as they can produce 300 to 800 kilograms of milk during a lactation period of 180 to 300 days. Murrah crossbreeds can produce 42% more milk than the native caracows. Carabao milk has a higher nutritive value than cow's milk and can be easily used in the production of soft white cheese (kesong puti).

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AT BACKYARD LEVEL:

A. Breeds and Breedings

1. Carabao breeds commonly found in the Philippines:

a. Draft type -- Philippine carabao and Thailand buffalo
b. Dairy type -- Murrah and Nili/ravi

2. Selection of breeding animals

Selection of breeding animals

a. Caracow/caraheifer to be selected should be 3-4 years old, with well-developed udders, large and uniformly shaped teats, possess a docile and good dairy temperament, angular form, be more lean than meaty and be an offspring of a known good milker.

b. Carabull or carasteer to be selected should be 4 to 6 years old, healthy and vigorous, possess a masculine character, medium to short neck, massive with a blocky conformation and have a heavy and welldeveloped body. Additionally, the animal should have well-developed fore and hindquarters, be powerful, low-set and alert and of good temperament. The male animals are best used for work purposes.

c. Judicious culling and selection of animals must be practiced in order to maintain the best animals in a herd.

3. Breeding:

a. Natural breeding is the common practice using the best carabull available to mate caracow/caraheifer. This is considered the best due to the silent heat (30-56%) among caracows.

b. Artificial insemination (A.l.), however, is considered the easiest and cheapest method of improving local animals using prostaglandin hormone end frozen semen, if Al technician and equipment are accessible in your area.

4. Reasons to crossbreed native caracow (Philippine carabao) with selected Indian Murrah buffalo bull (for more comparative information see Table 1).

a. The offspring is bigger, taller and more active.

b. Crossbreed caracows produce more milk (42% more) than native caracows.

c. Crossbreed offspring have a higher growth rate (30-40%) than native carabaos.

d. Crossbreed animals possess better draft ability in upland condition.

Note: Based on research studies, crossbreed caracows in the third generation (5/8 Murrah and 3/8 Philippine carabao), when compared with pure breed animals, have comparable levels of milk production.

B. Housing Requirements

1. Provide a dry, clean and well-ventilated shed made of nipa, bamboo and/or wood. It is advisable to cement the floor to facilitate cleaning. Trees can be grown around the shed, to serve as a windbreak and provide extra shade during the summer months. Animals should always be kept in dry stalls in the evening and under the shed during the summer months.

2. Construct a compost or manure pit nearby for disposal of left-over feed litter and manure. A carabao produces 10.8 kg. manure/day or 6,853 kg. in 360 days (1.22% N. 0.85% P and 0.79% K)

Housing

C. Feeds and Feeding Management

1. Carabaos are usually raised in semi-confinement, which involves tethering the animal for 810 hours/day on native pasture.

2. Low-cost feeds for carabao

a. For light to medium work (4 to 6 hours/day).

b. Before and after work, carabaos should receive plenty of clean drinking water. When in a heated condition, however, they should be allowed to cool off before watering. Work carabaos may lick salt in a box or may receive salt in their feed, (for example, one handful/head, three times a week.)

3. Supplementation of urea-molasses-mineral block to diet of rice straw or summer grazing pasture is sufficient to maintain lightweight.

4. Clean feed, water and a source of salt should tee constantly provided to animals in the pen/stall area.

D. Health Management

1. Immunization against hemorrhagic septicemia and foot and mouth disease should be administered every six months or at least once a year. Animals should be dewormed against liver fluke and intestinal worms as a preventive measure et least once a year using herbal treatments (betel nut & ipil-ipil) or commercial dewormers.

2. Control lice and other external parasites at least 34 times a year. During summer the common practice by farmers of shaving the body hair of their carabao helps to control external parasites.

3. Because carabaos have few sweat glands and little hair, the animals should be regularly bathed to keep the animal cool during summer months (especially draft animals).

E. Other Management Practices

1. Carabao as Draft Animal

Farmers use carabao as draft in their farming system for the following reasons:

a. It is an affordable, low-cost technology and the investment can pay for itself in a short time period.

b. The carabao and harness are available locally and maintenance can be conducted by the farmers.

c. After a carabao can no longer serve as a draft animal, it can become a source of carabao meat and meat by-products. Carabao meat (carabeef) has 46% less cholesterol than beef.

A well-trained carabao works efficiently and will demand a higher price. Ideally, farmers should raise their own draft carabao or purchase them while they are still young. Young carabao (about 2 years old) are easier to tame and train.

The draft capacity of an animal increases with its weight. For example, a 300 kg. carabull can pull a moldboard plow or harrow with a 30 kg. draft requirement for 8 hours. But, if the animal is made to pull 130 kg. it will only work for 3 to 4 hours before tiring. The animal must be allowed to assume a natural pace to produce an extended, rather than a concentrated effort.

To prevent abortion, a pregnant caracow should only be made to work on a limited basis. especially during the first 6 months of pregnancy. A newly calved caracow should not be used for draft until the calf reaches 3 to 4 months of age.

Tips on training carabao for work

Training carabao for work

a. Touch the animal constantly.

b. Slowly expose the animal to crowded places (i.e., along the side of the road) by riding its back.

c. Training can be done from 1 to 3 hours during cool periods of the day (i.e., early morning or late afternoon).

d. While leading the animal to pasture, place a well-fitted yoke with a smooth surface on the animal's neck and attach a sledge to train the animal to pull.

e. Then, train the carabao to pull the harrow on loose ground for an easy start.

f. Finally, train the animal to pull the plow on a plowed field during cod periods until the animal gets used to pulling heavy loads.

2. Carabao as Source of Milk

Although the carabao is a slow milk producer, its mliking capacity can be improved through proper management, systematic breeding and proper milking techniques. Local carabaos and upgrades should be tapped as a major source of milk and milk byproducts. A caracow can produce 2 to 2.5 liters of milk daily by hand-milking.

Milking Procedures and Management:

Caracows should be milked in a clean, dry place. The caracow should be cleaned to remove dirt that may fall into the milking can. The calf is allowed to stay with the caracow for 2 to 4 weeks after birth and then separated in the evening to prevent the calf from suckling. After milking, the calf can stay with the caracow.

The most common milking method is hand-milking.

1. The animal is tied to protect the milker.

2. The milker should wash his/her hands with soap and water.

3. Prepare a clean milking bucket, properly covered with a clean cloth.

4. Wash and massage the udder and teats with a clean cloth soaked in warm water.

5. Strip the teat to check if the milk is clean (organo/eptic test) and if no abnormalities are observed.

6. If nothing abnormal is observed, milk the animal until the milk flow stops.

7. If possible, the animal should be milked at the same time everyday by the same person. Concentrate should be provided at milking time (helps to increase milk output).

8. Pasteurize the milk collected from the caracow. Do not attempt to add wafer or en adulterant as it will spoil the quality of milk. Heat the milk up to 145 F on a double boiler. When it starts boiling, continue to stir the milk with a spoon while heating for 30 minutes. Then cool the milk by replacing the hot water with cool water for 30 minutes at about 42 F. Place the milk in a bottle. The milk is now ready for market or can be stored in a refrigerator for 3-4 days.

Comparative Gross Composition of Carabao's Milk, Buffalo's Milk and Cow's Milk

MILK
Properties	Carabao (%)	Buffalo (%)	Cow (%)
Fat	9.65	7.31	3.80
Protein	5.26	5.74	3.40
Lactose	5.29	4.89	4.85
ASL	0.95	0.81	0.75

LOW-COST FEEDS FOR CARABAOS:

1. For light to medium work (carabao working for 4 to 6 hours/day)

Feeding Ration Recommended for en average-sized Carabao

	RATION (Kg)
	1	2	3	4	5
Rice bran	3	3	4	2	3
Copra meal	2	2	-	-	-
Napier grass	25	35	25	-	-
Peanut hay	5	-	-	-	-
Ground corn	-	2	-	-	-
Soy bean (soilage)	-	-	15	20	-
Sugar cane tops	-	-	-	25	20
TOTAL	35	42	44	34	43

2. Hard Work -- Carabao employed whole day for plowing/cart work/pulling heavy logs in the forest with only 2 hours rest at noon.

Feeding Ration Recommended for en average-sized Carabao

	RATION (Kg)
	1	2	3	4	5
Rice bran	6	4	7	5	5
Copra meal	3	3	-	4	2
Napier grass	35	25	20	-	-
Peanut hay	-	5	-	-	-
Soybean (soilage)	-	-	20	-	25
Sugar cane tops	-	-	-	35	20
TOTAL	44	37	47	44	42

SOME IMPORTANT INFORMATION ABOUT CARABAO AND ITS UPGRADES

	Philippine Carabao (PC) (Draft)	Murrah Buffalo(Dairy)	Carabao Buffalo* Philippine Carabao
Body Weight
- at calving	27 kg.	29 kg.	34 kg.
- at six months	110 kg.	134 kg.	130 kg.
-yearling weighs	141 kg.	241 kg.	208 kg.
- two years old	272 kg.	306 kg.	340 kg.
- three years old	480.8 - 515 kg.	525-625 kg.	557.36-609.62 kg.
Milk production - liter per lactation	528 (8 months)	1,149 (10 months)	1,032 (10 months)
Age at first fertile mating	859-885 days (2 years, 4 months-2 years, 6 months)	1,275 days (3-1/2 year) months)	844 days (2 years, 3
Age at 1st calving	1,342 days (3 years, 7 months)	1,582 days (4 years, 4 months)	1,178 days (3 years, 3 months)
Estrus cycle	21 days	21 days	21 days
Estrus period (watch for silent heat)	5 to 36 hours	24 to 72 hours	24 hours
- onset of estrus	dawn/early morning	dawn/early morning	dawn
Ovulation time	15 hours (after end of estrus)	11 hours (after cessation of estrus)	14 hours (after end of estrus)
Gestation period	320 to 325 days	310 days	316 days
Calving intervals	1 1/2 year	1 1/2 year	1 1/2 year
Breeding season*	August to January	August to January	August to January
Calving months	July to September	July to September	July to September
Post-partum breeding	60 days	133.82 ± 78.93	133.82 ± 78.93
Incidence of twinning	2:10,000	-	-

* Breeding occurs any time of the year but more during the rainy season and cooler months.

Azolla meal for layers and broilers

Although most people think of Azolla as fertilizer, one way of beating the high cost of feeds for farm animals is by supplementing the animals' regular diets with Azolla. Drying, ensiling and other feed treatments using fresh Azolla are simple and effective ways to ensure that optimum benefits can be obtained from Azolla by farm animals.

Azolla meal for layers and broilers

MATERIALS NEEDED:

· freshly harvested azolla
· commercial layer or broiler rations
· trays with slits or perforated bottoms for drying Azolla

· commercial grinder (gilingan) for grinding Azolla into powder or feed bag for holding Azolla during manual crushing

· empty motor oil can (1 liter) for measuring the ingredients.

Materials needed

PROCEDURE:

1. Harvest Azolla from the propagation pond. Wash thoroughly to remove soil and other residues. Do not use Azolla which has been exposed to pesticides.

Procedure

2. Place the Azolla on trays and sundry it for 3-7 days or until it-turns brown. Azolla is sufficiently dry when it crumbles when squeezed.

Place the Azolla on trays

3. Grind the dried Azolla to form a powder resembling coffee. If no grinder is available, place the dried Azolla in a feed bag and step on it until it is crushed.

Grind the dried Azolla

4. Combine the Azolla meal with commercial layer or broiler rations at a ratio of 1:9.

Combine the Azolla meal with commercial layer

Note: For growing native and upgraded chickens like Cantonese, Azolla meal can be given as a supplement to ordinary low-cost feeds.

SOURCE: UPLB, National Azolla Action Program

Azolla silage as feed for growing pigs

Aside from being used as green manure by farmers, Azolla can also be used as feed supplement for growing pigs. It has a crude protein content of 17-28% and contains amino acids, vitamins and trace minerals. Unlike ipil-ipil (Leucaena), Azolla has no toxic substance (mimosine).

When Azolla is ensiled, its moisture content is lowered to a manageable level, improving its nutritional value. When the silage is added to commercially available concentrate mixes, the resulting mixture easily meets the nutritional requirements of growing pigs.

Azolla silage as feed for growing pigs

The following materials are needed in preparing Azolla silage:

· net bags or sacks for drip-drying Azolla
· trays with slits or perforated bottoms for further drying
· empty kerosene and motor oil cans for measuring ingredients
· pails for storing the ensiled Azolla
· plastic sheets and rubber strips for sealing the pails.

PROCEDURE:

1. Collect Azolla from the propagation pond. Make sure the Azolla is free from soil and other debris by thoroughly washing it. Do not use Azolla which has been exposed to pesticides.

Collect Azolla from the propagation pond

2. Place the harvested Azolla in net begs or sacks and allow to drip for 2-3 hours.

Place the harvested Azolla in net begs

3. Transfer the dried Azolla to the trays to allow further drying and to provide good ventilation. Spread out the Azolla end turn over 2-3 times a day for even drying.

Transfer the dried Azolla to the trays

Azolla is dried from a moisture content of 95% to 65-70%*. Drying takes about 2 days during sunny weather and 3 days in cloudy weather.

TWO AZOLLA SILAGE FORMULATIONS:

Sillage 1

· Sillage 1 - 70% Azolla + 30% corn

Mix 1 kerosene can (balde) of dried Azolla, with 4 1/2 motor oil cans of corn. Place the mixture in a pail. (If possible, use plastic pails for storing ensiled Azolla. Pails made of tin will rust.) Use plastic sheets to cover the pails and rubber strips to tightly seal the container and keep oxygen out. Let the mixture ferment for at least 1 week.

· Silage 2 - 70% Azolla + 25% corn + 5% molasses

Silage 2

Mix 1 kerosene can of dried Azolla, with 4 motor oil cans of corn. Add 1/3 motor oil can of molasses. Follow the same succeeding procedures as in Silage.

Note: If corn is not available, other carbohydrate sources like rice bran. cassava meal, etc., can be used.

It is recommended that each pail of ensiled Azolla be enough for one feeding to minimize oxygen combining with the mixture when the cover is removed. Oxygen must be kept out to prevent the growth of mold and worms (maggots) in the mixture.

When, the Azolla silage is fed to growing pigs, it may be added to mixed grower ration (MUIR) or commercial grower mix (CGM)

Ensiled Azolla can be stored up to 2 months without affecting the nutritive value of the feedstuff, as long as the container is kept sealed. Once opened, the silage must be consumed within a week.

Amounts needed at 25 percent Azolla silage supplementation

Weight of Growing Pigs (kg)	Amount of Azolla Silage (kg)	Amount of MGR CGM (kg)
20 - 35	1.50 - 1.80	1.00
36 - 50	2.00 - 2.50	1.50
51 - 60	2.50 - 3.00	2.00

Amounts needed at 10 percent Azolla silage supplementation

Weight of Growing Pigs (kg)	Amount of Azolla Silage (kg)	Amount of MGR CGM (kg)
20 - 35	0.50 - 0.80	1.40
36 - 50	1.00	1.80
51 -60	1.00	2.25

SOURCE: National Azolla Action Program c/o Office of the Dean UPLB College of Agriculture

College, Laguna 3720

Multipurpose trees for the lowlands

Trees are an important component of the lowland ecosystem. They provide readily available firewood, poles and stakes and protect the field from strong winds. Trees also improve the microclimate of the farm and attract birds and other beneficial insects, thereby reducing insect infestation.

Multipurpose trees give additional incentive for cultivation. The leaves are excellent for green manure. They grow fast and coppice easily thus reducing the need to replant after every harvest.

There are different species of multipurpose trees. For lowland areas, however, they should be tolerant or moderately tolerant to occasional water logging.

Species of multipurpose trees for lowland areas (1)

Species of multipurpose trees for lowland areas (2)

Species of multipurpose trees for lowland areas (3)

Additional livestock feed resources

Additional livestock feed resources

The fact that the best land is devoted to food or cash crop production should not allow livestock production to be ruled out. Marginal lands can be used to pasture animals as well as to produce animal fodder in order to optimize scarce land resources. Farmers view livestock production not in competition with crops, but rather as a complementary farm operation which can convert crop residues and farm by-products not fit for human consumption or market into valuable animal products.

Increasing the supply and quality of livestock fodder has positive effects for the whole farm system, in addition to improving the health and productivity of the animals. Livestock are an integral component of the nutrient cycling system of a farm and directly or indirectly affect three aspects of nutrient cycling:

1. Nutrients are redistributed on the farm when they are brought up from deeper soil levels by trees whose leaves are fed to livestock.

2. Nutrient availability to plants is increased when crop residues and other feeds are converted to manure.

3. An increase in nitrogen supply is brought about when legume forage are grown and fed to the animals.

Therefore, there is a need to integrate livestock production into other farming components by harnessing marginal farm areas for the production of livestock resources.

GRASSES AND LEGUMINOUS TREES ALONG EARTHEN DIKES, IRRIGATION CANALS AND ROAD BANKS:

These areas often constitute the neglected and waste areas of the farm and are usually left to grasses and weeds such as cogon (Imperata cylindrica), talahib (Saccharum spontaneum), aguingay (Rottboella exaltata), amorseko (Chrysopogon aciculatus). Paddy dikes are usually repaired before planting the rice and once the rice is planted, they can serve as animal fodder sources of grasses and tree legumes. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) on dikes, for example, can produce more than 1.5 kg dry matter (DM)/yr/linear m. Andropogon yielded 36.7 tons of DM/ha when planted along the dikes. Leguminous trees and shrubs can provide high protein fodder using species such as madre de cacao (Gliricidia septum), ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) and others. Two-year old Gliricidia, for example, produced 5 kg DM/tree/yr of top quality fodder when planted 2 m apart.

Along the banks of roads and irrigation canals, Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and Napier grow well. In waterlogged areas, Para grass (Panicum purpurescens) thrives well even when it is cut at 4-6 week intervals.

Grasses and legumes planted along earthen dikes, irrigation canals and road banks not only provide feed, but also help to control soil erosion.

INTENSIVE FEED GARDEN ALONG FARM BOUNDARIES:

Other often-neglected areas are farm boundaries. Some farmers install live fences and barbed wire to control passage of humans and stray animals. Farmers in Batangas and Cavite (Philippines) maximize the use of farm boundaries by planting hedgerows of intensive feed gardens (IFG) as potential sources of fodder for their livestock. They interplant Leucaena and Gliricidia with Napier grass and/or other grasses. This system provides the livestock with nutritious fodder throughout the year. During the wet season (June- December), came feed on fresh grasses and legumes, while during the dry season (January-May), they eat green fodder from leguminous trees supplemented with hay (dried rice straw or corn stover).

In Bali, Indonesia, most farmers use a Three-strata Forage System (TSFS), a technology of planting and harvesting three different strata (one composed of a grass or ground legume, another of a shrub legume and a third of a fodder tree) to provide a source of livestock fodder throughout the year. The first stratum consists of grasses (Cenchrus ciliaris, Urochloa mosambisensis, Panicum maximum) and ground legumes (Centrosema pubescens, Stylosanthes hamata, S. scabra) which provide fodder during the wet season. The second stratum consists of shrub legumes (Gliricidia, Leucaena, Acacia vellosa) which provide fodder during the wet and dry seasons. The third stratum consists of fodder trees (Ficus poacellie, Lannea corromandilica, Hibiscus tilliaceus) which provide fodder during the dry season.

Intensive feed garden along farm boundaries

Note: Fodder grasses should be cut after leaf dew dries in the morning (between 9:00 and 10:00) as a precaution against possible liver fluke infection.

Planting Arrangement of the Grasses Legume Shrubs and Fooder trees in the TSPS.

The botanical composition of the forage offered to cattle will vary according to:

Season:	First Stratum	Second Stratum	Third Stratum	Total
During the first 3 years
Wet Season	65 % +	35 % +	0 =	100 %
Dry Season	35%	65 %	0	100 %
During the 4th and succeeding years
Wet Season	65 %	25 %	10 %	100 %
Dry Season	35 %	40 %	25 %	100 %

The TSFS offers many advantages to a small farmer with livestock. The utilization of small parcels of land is maximized by combining cash or food crops with animal fodder species. For example, the plot in this diagram is one-quarter hectare (2500 sq.m) and comprises three distinct areas and sources of production: a 1,600-sq.m core area planted to traditional cash or food crops (the crop residues can also be fed to livestock); a 900-sq.m peripheral area subdivided into 45 sq.m areas planted to improved grasses and legumes; and the 200 m circumference area planted to fodder trees and shrub legumes which form a hedgerow fence around the area.

Livestock, an income-generating farm component, are integrated into the farm using a cut-and carry and stall feeding system. With the increased supply of higher quality fodder, 12 % increases in growth rates have been documented and the carrying capacity of a 1 hectare area can be increased to 4 animals/ha. With the combination of the species within the three strata, forage production can increase by as much as 48%. Through the use of drought-resistant species, forage is available throughout the year. The grasses, shrubs and trees also help reduce water run-off, thus reducing soil erosion. Lastly, the legume shrubs and trees can produce 1 1/2 tons of firewood/yr.

HAY PRODUCTION AND STORAGE:

The mandala or straw stack is a prominent symbol in rice-growing communities. Rice straw is the by-product of rice after threshing and is a potential feed source for carabaos during the summer lean months. It is rich in carbohydrates and is available when pasture grasses are affected by drought or when all of the farm area are planted to field crops.

Farmers in the rice-producing areas of the Philippines store large quantities of rice straw after the rice harvest by sundrying and storing them as bales in a covered barn or as loose hay in the oval-shaped, compact mandala, supported in the middle by a bamboo pole firmly anchored in the ground. The mandala is located in an elevated spot of the farm near to where the livestock are kept. The upper portion should be covered to protect the straw from the rain. Rice straw can be stored longer if its moisture content (MC) is between 13-14%. But, if the MC is above 20%, heat may be produced, causing spontaneous combustion and possible fire or inducing mold growth which reduces the feed value of the straw. An average-sized mandala contains about 1,200 kg DM and has 3.3% crude protein (PCARRD, 1978).

Hay production and storage

In India, the straw stack is located in one corner of a field or on the roof of the animal shed. The posts are made of cut stones and large- boulders are utilized for the foundation.

Straw stack

In other parts of India, another storage system is used. Large stones are used to build a foundation. Then, bamboo poles are laid upon the stones close to each other as a slatted floor. Rice straw, pearl millet and sorghum straw are tightly pressed and compacted into the space. The materials must be tightly compacted to prevent exposure to air which can cause spoilage. The top tapers to the sides and is covered with canvas or plastic sheets to protect it from the rain.

Plastic sheet

Another dried roughage which can be stored is corn stover, the portion of the plant left in the field once the ears have been harvested. The whole plant is left in the field should be stored and protected from rain, otherwise it mildews disintegrates, making it unfit for feed.

OTHER CROP RESIDUES:

1. Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

In sugarcane plantations which use many carabaos, sugarcane tops comprise their only source of daily feed during the milling season. Instead of drying and burning the cane leaves and tops in the field, they should be collected,' cried and stored for future use. Whether sugarcane tops are dried or green, they are palatable and relished by carabaos and cattle. They contain a large amount of digestible carbohydrates in sugar form.

2. Pineapple (Ananas saliva)

In areas where pineapples are grown as a cash crop, the leaves and damaged fruit can be used as animal fodder. After the plants have borne fruit for 2 years, they are removed to make way for new crops. The plants are gathered and the spiny portion removed and cut into 2-3 inch pieces before given to the animals.

3. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea)

Peanuts not only produce quality, nutritious food legume! but can yield up to 8-10 T fodder/ha. Once the peanuts have been harvested, the vine can be fed as peanut hay. The nutritive value is high because of its protein content (10.8-11.9%), as well as its potassium, vitamin A and calcium contents. An additional advantage is its high palatability. For best

· results, the vines should be dried well and protected from rain and dew.

4. "Miramais" (tentatively identified as Sorghum bicolor)

Farmers in Pangasinan province (Philippines) use a portion of their farm to cultivate this indigenous grass, which is similar in appearance to corn. It is a hardy plant which grows well in well-drained, fertile soils and can withstand drought, pests and diseases. It is usually planted before the end of the dry season (October-November) and is cut 30 cm above the ground before it develops a tassel. The stems and leaves are fed and are relished by animals. The plant will develop a tiller and ratoon to produce more forage.

Shelterbelts for rice farms

Shelterbelts are windbreaks, specifically rows of trees planted to serve as protection from excessively strong winds. Shelterbelts modify a farm's microclimate and reduce crop damage from the force of wind. Depending upon the height, placement and orientation of the shelterbelt along a certain stretch, the shelterbelt can also:

· decrease temperature and relative humidity

· decrease plant and soil water loss (evapotranspiration) and the entry of hot air to the farm (advection)

· increase the rate of carbon dioxide replenishment.

The most beneficial effect of shelterbelts is the reduction of mechanical injury, e.g., leaf defoliation and lodging in areas experiencing high wind speeds. There are reports showing that shelterbelts increase plant growth and yield.

The effectiveness of shelterbelts depends essentially on the interaction of two factors:

1. Height of shelterbelt: Higher shelterbelts protect a longer stretch of crops on the leeward side (the side protected by the shelterbelt).

2. Porosity: The degree of perforation is usually dependent on foliage qualities such as leaf arrangements, sizes and shapes. More perforated barriers allow less turbulent winds to blow and protect an even longer stretch on the leeward side.

Porosity

2. Orientation. To effectively protect crops, 2-3 rows of shelterbelts should be oriented perpendicular to the predominant direction of strong or typhoon winds.

Orientation

3. Placement. Shelterbelts may be placed near farm boundaries, in areas not used for crop production, or near farm-house boundaries.

Unless rice bunds are widened to accommodate a row of shelterbelts, it would not be ideal to place shelterbelts in the bunds because:

- of waterlogging problems

- there will be competition among crops for water, light and nutrients

- it may be an alternate host to rice insect pests and diseases

- it may hamper field operations.